
Class \ J/' >- '^ s^ 

Book - ^''^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Creamery Butter- Making 



BY 



JOHN MICHELS, B.S.A., M.S. (Wisconsin) 

Professor of Dairying and Animal Husbandry 

IN THE State Agricultural College 

OF North Carolina 

AUTHOR OF 

"MARKET DAIRYING" 

AND 

"DAIRY FARMING" 



ILLUSTRATED 



FIFTH EDITION 

Revised and Enlarged 



RALEIGH, NORTH CAROLINA 

Published by the Author 



igog 



ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



^^^ 



te'^ 



T^<0 



aA 



COPYRIGHT, 1904 AND 1909 
BY JOHN MICHELS 



AUal2 1909 




PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION 

The anther's experience in teaching creamery stndents 
havS demonstrated to him the need of a suitable reference 
book to be used in conjunction with the lectures on cream- 
ery butter making. An attempt to supply this need has 
resulted in the preparation of this work, which embodies 
the results of a long experience both as a practical butter 
maker and as a teacher of creamery management. 

Special emphasis has been laid upon starters, pasteur- 
ized butter making, methods of creamery construction, 
and creamery mechanics, subjects which have usually been 
treated only in a very elementary way in similar publica- 
tions that have appeared heretofore. 

The historical side of the various phases of butter mak- 
ing has in the main been omitted, not because it was 
deemed uninteresting, but for fear of making this volume 
too bulky. 

With the appended glossary explaining all unavoidable 
technical terms, this treatise is offered to the public as 
a suitable hand-book for the student as well as for the 
butter maker who cannot attend a dairy school. 

John Michels. 

Michigan Agricultural College, 
March, 1904. 



PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION. 

In preparing the fifth edition of Creamery Butter- 
making, a thorough revision has been made of the entire 
book and about one hundred pages of new matter 
have been added. Indeed nothing has been left undone to 
bring the book strictly up-to-date, in order that it may 
merit a continuance of the high favor in which the book 
has been held since its first appearance. 

All available sources of information have been made 
use of, including scores of leading buttermakers and 
creamery managers whose assistance has been especially 
valuable in determining the soundness of many new 
features that have recently sprung up in creamery work. 
Much information relating to the latest developments in 
creamery work has been secured at first hand by visiting 
the leading creamery sections of the country. 

Valuable advice and assistance has been received 
from Math Michels, a veteran creamery buttermaker of 
Wisconsin, who recently conducted the Wisconsin Educa- 
tional Butter and Cheese Scoring Exhibitions. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The ''rule of thumb" butter making days are gone by. 
No one at the present time can hold any important posi- 
tion in the profession of butter making unless thoroughly 
grounded in the principles that underlie it. It is true 
many obscure problems yet remain to be solved, but by 
the aid of the bacteriologist and chemist butter making 
has now been fairly placed upon a scientific basis. 

Bacteriology has shed no less light upon the various 
processes involved in the manufacture of butter than it 
has upon the nature and causes of the diseases with which 
mankind is afflicted. The souring of milk, the ripening 
of cream, the causes of the various taints common to milk 
and cream are now quite thoroughly understood. Along 
with this understanding have come many radical changes 
in the handling of milk and cream and their manufacture 
into butter as well as in the handling of butter itself. 

The best butter makers at the present time are the men 
who are the most diligent students of bacteria and their 
relation to butter making processes. Above their doors 
is written in emblazoned letters "Cleanliness is next to 
Godliness." For cleanliness is the foundation of succesi 
in butter making. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Page. 
Chapter I. Chemical and Physical Properties of Milk ii 

Chapter II. The Babcock Test 23 

Chapter III. The Lactometer and Its Use 34 

Chapter IV. Bacteria and Milk Fermentations 42 

Chapter V. Composite Sampling 51 

Chapter VI. Creaming 57 

Chapter VII. Cream Ripening 66 

Chapter VIII. Starters 84 

Chapter IX. Churning 96 

Chapter X. Packing and Marketing Butter iii 

Chapter XI. Calculating Dividends 119 

Chapter XII. Theoretical Overrun 128 

Chapter XIII. Handling o£ Skimmilk and Buttermilk... 130 

Chapter XIV. Butter Judging 137 

Chapter XV. Pasteurization as Applied to Buttermaking 145 

Chapter XVI. Control of Water in Butter 154 

Chapter XVII. Sampling, Weighing and Testing Gathered 

Cream 161 

Chapter XVIII. Location and Construction of Creameries. . 171 

Chapter XIX. Ice House and Refrigerator 182 

Chapter XX. Sewage Disposal 188 

Chapter XXI. Washing and Sterilizing Vessels 194 

Chapter XXII. Detection of Tainted Milk and Cream 200 

Chapter XXIII. Mechanical Refrigeration 205 

Chapter XXIV. Creamery Bookkeeping 215 

Chapter XXV. Co-operative Creameries 224 

Chapter XXVI. Handling Alilk and Cream at the Farm 230 

Chapter XXVII. Sanitary Milk Production 241 

Chapter XXVIII. Transportation of Cream 251 

Chapter XXIX. Water Supply for Farm and Creamery. . 256 

Chapter XXX. Selling Cream and Ice Cream 262 

Chapter XXXI. Creamery Mechanics 272 

Chapter XXXII. Grading Milk and Cream 307 

Appendix 311 

Glossary 318 

Index 322 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING. 



CHAPTER I. 

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK. 

Milk, in a broad sense, may be defined as the normal 
secretion of the mammary glands of animals that suckle 
their young. It is the only 
food found in Nature con- 
taining all the elements 
necessary to sustain life. 
Moreover it contains these 
elements in the proper pro- 
portions and in easily di- 
gestible and assimilable 
form. 

Designed by Nature to 
nourish the young, milk 
was originally used entirely 
for this purpose and secre- 
ted only a short time after 
parturition. For many cen- 
turies, however, it has been 
used as an important part of the human dietary and cows 
at the present time yield milk almost incessantly. Because 
of its nutritive qualities its use as a dietetic is rapidly 
increasing. 

Physical Properties. Milk is a whitish opaque fluid 
possessing a sweetish taste and a faint ordor suggestive 
of cow's breath. It has an amphioteric reaction, that is, 

11 




Weigh can showing gate opener. 



12 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

it is both acid and alkaline. This double reaction is due 
largely to acid and alkaline salts and possibly to small 
quantities of organic acids. 

Milk has an average normal specific gravity of 1.032, 
with extremes rarely exceeding 1.029 ^^^^ ^-^33' After 
standing a few moments it loses its homogenous character. 
Evidence of this we have in the "rising of the cream." 
This is due to the fact that milk is not a perfect solution 
but an emulsion. All of the fat, the larger portion of the 
casein, and part of the ash are in suspension. 

In consistency milk is slightly more viscous than water, 
the viscosity increasing with the decrease in temperature. 
It is also exceedingly sensitive to odors, possessing great 
absorption properties. This teaches the necessity of plac- 
ing milk in clean pure surroundings. 

Chemical Composition. The composition of milk is 
very complex and variable, as will be seen from the fol- 
lowing figures: 

Average Composition of Normal Milk. A com- 
pilation of figures from various American Ex- 
periment Stations. 

Water 87.1^ 

Butter fat 3.9;^ 

Casein 2.9^ 

Albumen 5^ 

Sugar 4.9^ 

Ash y^ 

Fibrin Trace. 

Galactase Trace. 

100. o*^ 

The great variations in the composition of milk are 
shown by the figures from Koenig, given below : 



PROPERTIES OF MILK 13 

Maximum. Minimum. 

Water 90.69 80.32 

Fat 6.47 1.67 

Casein 423 i-79 

Albumen 1-44 25 

Sugar 6.03 2. II 

Ash 1. 21 .35 

These figures represent quite accurately the maximum 
and minimum composition of milk except that the maxi- 
mum for fat is too low. The author has known cows 
to yield milk testing 7.6% fat, and records show tests 
even higher than this. 

BUTTER FAT. 

This is the most valuable as well as the most variable 
constituent of milk. It constitutes about 83% of butter 
and is an indispensable constituent of the many kinds of 
whole milk cheese now found upon the market. It also 
measures the commercial value of milk and cream, and 
is used as- an index of the value of milk for butter and 
cheese production. 

Physical Properties. Butter fat is suspended in milk 
in the form of extremely small globules numbering about 
100,000,000 per drop of milk. These globules vary con- 
siderably in size in any given sample, some being five 
times as large as others. The size of the globules is 
affected mostly by the period of lactation. As a rule the 
size decreases and the number increases with the advance 
of the period. In strippers' milk the globules are some- 
times so small as to render an efficient separation of the 
cream and the churning of same impossible. 

The size of the fat globules also varies with different 
breeds- In the Jersey breed the diameter of the globule 



14 CkBAMBRY butter MAKING 

is one eight-thousandth of an inch, in the Holstein one 
twelve-thousandth, while the average for all breeds is 
about one ten-thousandth. 

Night's milk usually has smaller globules than morn- 
ing's. The size of the globules also decreases with the 
age of the cow. 

The density or specific gravity of butter fat at ioo° F. 
is .91 and is quite constant. Its melting point varies 
between wide limits, the average being 92° F. 

Composition of Butter Fat. According to Richmond, 
butter fat has the following composition : 

Butyrin 3.85 ) 

Caproin 3 -60 I Soluble or volatile. 

Caprylin 55 I 



Caprin i . 90 

Laurin 7.40 

Myristin 20.20 

Palmitin 25.70 

Stearin i .80 

Olein, etc 35-00 



Insoluble or 
non-volatile. 



This shows butter fat to be composed of no less than 
nine distinct fats, which are formed by the union of 
glycerine with the corresponding fatty acids. Thus, buty- 
rin is a compound of glycerine and butyric acid ; palmitin, 
a compound of glycerine and palmitic acid, etc. The 
most important of these acids are palmitic, oleic, and 
butyric. 

Palmitic acid is insoluble, melts at 144° F., and forms 
(with stearic acid) the basis of hard fats. 

Oleic acid is insoluble, melts at 57° F., and forms the 
basis of soft fats. 



PROPERTIES OF MILK IS 

Butyric acid is soluble and is a liquid which solidifies 
at — 2° F. and melts again at 28° F. 

Insoluble Fats. A study of these fats is essential in 
elucidating the variability of the churning temperature 
of cream. As a rule this is largely determined by the 
relative amounts of hard and soft fats present m butter 
fat. Other conditions the same, the harder the fat the 
higher the churning temperature. Scarcely any two milks 
contain exactly the same relative amounts of hard and 
soft fats, and it is for this reason that the churning tem- 
perature is such a variable one. 

The relative amounts of hard and soft fats are influ- 
enced by: 

1. Breeds. 

2. Feeds. 

3. Period of lactation. 

4. Individuality of cows. 

The butter fat of Jerseys is harder than that of Hol- 
steins and, therefore, requires a relatively high churning 
temperature, the difference being about six degrees. 

Feeds have an important influence upon the character 
of the butter fat. Cotton seed meal and bran, for example, 
materially increase the percentage of hard fats. Gluten 
feeds and linseed meal, on the other hand, produce a soft 
butter fat. 

With the advance of the period of lactation the per- 
centage of hard fat increases. This chemical change, to- 
gether with the physical change which butter fat under- 
goes, makes churning difficult in the late period of lac- 
tation. 

The individuality of the cow also to a great extent 
influences the character of the butter fat. It is inherent 



16 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

in some cows to produce a soft butter fat, in others to 
produce a hard butter fat, even in cows of the same breed. 

Soluble Fats. The sohible or volatile fats, of which 
butyrin is the most important, give milk and sweet cream 
butter their characteristic flavors. Butyrin is found only 
in butter fat and distinguishes this from all vegetable 
and other animal fats. 

The percentage of soluble fats decreases with the period 
of lactation, also with the feeding of dry feeds and those 
rich in protein. Succulent feeds and those rich in carbo- 
hydrates, according to experiments made in Holland and 
elsewhere, increase the percentage of soluble fats. This 
may partly account for the superiority of the flavor of 
June butter. 

It may be proper, also, to discuss under volatile or 
soluble fats those abnormal flavors that are imparted to 
milk, cream, and butter by weeds like garlic and wild 
onions, and by various feeds such as beet tops, rape, par- 
tially spoiled silage, etc. These flavors are undoubtedly 
due to abnormal volatile fats. 

Cows should never be fed strong flavored feeds shortly 
before milking. When this is done the odors are sure 
to be transmitted to the milk and the products therefrom. 
When, however, feeds of this kind are fed shortly after 
milking no bad effects will be noticed at the next milking. 

Aibumenoids. These are nitrogenous compounds 
which give milk its high dietetic value. Casein, albumen, 
globulin, and nuclein form the aibumenoids of milk, the 
casein and albumen being by far the most important. 

Casein. This is a white colloidal substance, possessing 
neither taste nor smell. It is the most important tissue- 
forming constituent of milk and forms the basis of an 
almost endless variety of cheese. 



PROPERTIES OP MILK 17 

The larger portion of the casein is suspended in milk 
in an extremely finely divided amorphus condition. It is 
intimately associated with the insoluble calcium phosphate 
of milk and possibly held in chemical combination with 
this. Its study presents many difficulties, which leaves its 
exact composition still undetermined. 

Casein is easily precipitated by means of rennet extract 
and dilute acids, but the resulting precipitates are not 
identically the same. It is not coagulated by heat. 

Albumen. In composition albumen very closely re- 
sembles casein, differing from this only in not containing 
sulphur. It is soluble and unaffected by rennet, which 
causes most of it to pass into the whey in the manufacture 
of cheese. It is coagulated at a temperature of 170° F. 
It is in their behavior toward heat and rennet that casein 
and albumen radically differ. 

Milk Sugar. This sugar, commonly called lactose, has 
the same chemical composition as cane sugar, differing 
from it chiefly in possessing only a faint sweetish taste. 
It readily changes into lactic acid when acted upon by 
the lactic acid bacteria. This causes the ordinary phenom- 
enon of milk souring. The maximum amount of acid in 
milk rarely exceeds .9%, the germs usually being checked 
or killed before this amount is formed. There is there- 
fore always a large portion of the sugar left in sour milk. 
All of the milk sugar is in solution. 

Ash. Most of the ash of milk exists in solution. It 

is composed of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric 

acid, chlorine, and iron, the soluble lime being the most 

important constituent. It is upon this that the action of 

rennet extract is dependent. For when milk is heated 

to high temperatures the soluble lime is rendered insoluble 

and rennet will no longer curdle milk. It seems also that 
2 



18 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

the viscosity of milk and cream is largely due to soluble 
lime salts. Cream heated to high temperatures loses its 
viscosity to such an extent that it can not be made to 
*'whip." Treatment v^ith soluble lime restores its orig- 
inal viscosity. The ash is the least variable constituent 
of milk. 

Colostrum Milk. This is the first milk drawn after 
parturition. It is characterized by its peculiar odor, yel- 
low color, broken down cells, and high content of albu- 
men which gives it its viscous, slimy appearance and 
causes it to coagulate on application of heat. 

According to Eugling the average composition of colos- 
trum milk is as follows : 

Water 71.69^ 

Fat Z.37 

Casein 4 . 83 

Albumen 1585 

Sugar 2.48 

Ash 1.78 

The secretion of colostrum milk is of very short dura- 
tion. Usually within four or five days after calving it 
assumes all the properties of normal milk. In some cases, 
however, it does not become normal till the sixth or even 
the tenth day, depending largely upon the condition of 
the animal. 

A good criterion in the detection of colostrum milk is 
its peculiar color, odor, and slimy appearance. The dis- 
appearance of these characteristics determines its fitness 
for butter production. 

Milk Secretion. Just how all of the different con- 
stituents of milk are secreted is not yet definitely 
understood. But it is known that the secretion takes 



PROPERTIES OF MILK 19 

place in the udder of the cow, and principally during the 
process of milking. Further, the entire process of milk 
elaboration seems to be under the control of the nervous 
system of the cow. This accounts for the changes in flow 
and richness of milk whenever cows are subjected to 
abnormal treatment. It is well known that a change of 
milkers, the use of rough language, or the abuse of cows 
with dogs and milk stools, seriously affects the production 
of milk and butter fat. It is therefore of the greatest 
practical importance to milk producers to treat cows 
as gently as possible, especially during the process of 
milking. 

How Secreted. The source from which the milk con- 
stituents are elaborated is the blood. It must not be sup- 
posed, however, that all the different constituents already 
exist in the blood in the form in which we find them in 
milk, for the blood is practically free from fat, casein, 
and milk sugar. These substances must then be formed in 
the cells of the udder from material supplied them by the 
blood. Thus there are in the udder cells that have the 
power of secreting fat in a manner similar to that by 
which the gastric juice is secreted in the stomach. Simi- 
larly, the formation of lactose is the result of the action 
of another set of cells whose function is to produce lac- 
tose. It is believed that the casein is formed from the 
albumen through the activity of certain other cells. The 
water, albumen, and soluble ash probably pass directly 
from the blood into the milk ducts by the process known 
as osmosis. 

Variations in the Quality of Milk. Milk from dif- 
ferent sources may vary considerably in composition, 
particularly in the percentage of butter fat. Even the 



20 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

milk from the same cow may vary a great deal in compo- 
sition. The causes of these variations may be assigned 
to two sets of conditions : I. — Those natural to the cow. 
II. — Those of an artificial nature. 

I. QUAI.ITY 01? MILK AS Al^FECTED BY NATURAI, CONDI- 
TIONS. 

I. The composition of the milk of all cows undergoes 
a change with the advance of the period of lactation. 
During the first five months the composition remains prac- 
tically the same. After this, however, the milk becomes 
gradually richer until the cow "dries up." The following 
figures from Van Slyke illustrate this change: 

Month of Per cent of fat 
lactation. in milk. 

1 4-54 



2 4 

3-- 4 

4 4 

5 4 

6 4 

7 4 

8 4 

9 4 

10 5 



It will be noticed from these figures that the milk 
actually decreases somewhat in richness during the first 
three months of the period. But just before the cow dries 
up, it may test as high as 8%. 

2. The quality of milk also dififers with different 
breeds. Yet breed differences are less marked than those 
of the individual cows of any particular breed. 

Some breeds produce rich milk, others relatively poor 



PROPERTIES OP MILK 



21 



milk. The following data obtained at the New Jersey 
Experiment Station illustrates these differences: 



Breed. 


Total 
Solids. 


Fat. 


Milk 
Sugar. 


Proteids. 


Ash. 


Ayshire 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Tersev 


Per cent. 
12.70 
14.48 
12.12 
14.34 


Per cent. 
3.68 
5.02 
3.51 

4.78 


Per cent. 

4.84 
4.80 
4.69 

4.85 


Per cent. 
3.48 
3.92 
3.28 
3.96 


Per cent. 
.69 
.75 
.64 
.75 







3. Extremes in the composition of milk are usually 
to be ascribed to the individuality or "make up" of the 
cow. It is inherent in some cows to produce rich milk, 
in others to produce poor milk. In other words, Nature 
has made every cow to produce milk of a given richness, 
which can not be perceptibly changed except by careful 
selection and breeding for a number of generations. 



II. QUAUTY OF MILK AS AFFECTED BY ARTIFICIAL. CON- 
DITIONS. 

1. When cows are only partially milked they yield 
poorer milk than when milked clean. This is largely 
explained by the fact that the first drawn milk is always 
poorer in fat than that drawn last. Fore milk may test 
as low as .8%, while the strippings sometimes test as 
high as 14%. 

2. Fast milking increases both the quality and the 
quantity of the milk. It is for this reason that fast milkers 
are so much preferred to slow ones. 



22 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

3. The richness of milk is also influenced by the length 
of time that elapses between the milkings. In general, 
the shorter the time between the milkings the richer the 
milk. This, no doubt, in a large measure accounts for 
the differences we often find in the richness of morning's 
and night's milk. Sometimes the morning's milk is the 
richer, at other times the evening's, depending largely 
upon the time of day the cows are milked. Milk can not, 
however, be permanently enriched by milking three times 
in stead of twice a day. 

4. Unusual excitement of any kind reduces the quality 
of milk. The person who abuses cows by dogs, milk 
stools, or boisterousness, pays dearly for it in a reduction 
of both the quality and the quantity of milk produced. 

5. Starvation also seriously affects both the quality 
and the quantity of milk. It has been repeatedly shown, in 
this country and in Europe, that under-feeding to any 
great extent results in the production of milk poor in fat. 

6.- Sudden changes of feed may slightly affect the 
richness of milk, but only temporarily. 

So long as cows are fed a full ration, it is not possible 
to change the richness of milk permanently, no matter 
what the character of feed composing the ration. 

7. Irregularities of feeding and milking, exposure to 
heat, cold, rain, and flies, tend to reduce both the quantity 
and the quality of milk produced. 



CHAPTER II. 



the; babcock test. 



This is a cheap and simple device for determining the 
percentage of fat in milk, cream, skim-milk, buttermilk, 
whey, and cheese. It was invented in 1890 by Dr. S. M. 
Babcock, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, and ranks among the leading agricultural inventions 
of modern times. The chief uses of the Babcock test may 
be mentioned as follows : 

1. It has made possible the payment for milk accord- 
ing to its quality. 

2. It has enabled butter and cheese makers to detect 
undue losses in the process of manufacture. 

3. It has made possible the grading up of dairy herds 
by locating the poor cows. 

4. It has, in a large measure, done away with the prac- 
tice of watering and skimming milk. 

Principle of the Babcock Test. The separation of 
the butter fat from milk with the Babcock test is made 
possible : 

1. By the difference between the specific gravity of 
butter fat and milk serum. 

2. By the centrifugal force generated in the tester. 

3. By burning the solids not fat with a strong acid. 
Sample for a Test. Whatever the sample to be tested, 

always eighteen grams are used for a test. In testing 
cream and cheese, the sample is weighed. For testing 
milk, skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey, weighing requires 

23 



24 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



too much time. Indeed, with these substances weighing 
is not necessary as sufficiently accurate samples are ob- 




Fig. 1.— Babcock tester. 



tained by measuring which is the method universally em- 
ployed. In making a Babcock test it is of the greatest 
importance to secure a uniform sample of the substance 
to be tested. 



THE BABCOCK TEST 25 

Apparatus. This consists essentially of the following 
parts : A, Babcock tester ; B, milk bottle ; C, cream bottle ; 
D, skim-milk bottle ; E, pipette or milk measure ; F, acid 
measures ; G, cream scales ; H, mixing cans ; I, dividers. 

A. Babcock Tester. This machine, shown in Fig. i, 
consists of a revolving wheel placed in a horizontal posi- 
tion and provided with swinging pockets for the bottles. 
This wheel is rotated by means of a steam turbine wheel 
in the bottom or at the top of the tester. When the tester 
stops the pockets hang down allowing the bottles to stand 
up. As the wheel begins rotating the pockets move out 
causing the bottles to assume a horizontal position. Both 
wheels are enclosed in a cast iron frame provided with a 
cover. 

B. Milk Bottle. This has a neck graduated to ten 
large divisions, each of which reads one per cent. Each 
large division is subdivided into five smaller ones, 
making each subdivision read .2%. The contents of the 
neck from the zero mark to the io% mark is equivalent to 
two cubic centimeters. Since the Babcock test does not 
give the percentage of fat by volume but by weight, the 
io% scale on the neck of the bottle will, therefore, hold 
1.8 grams of fat. In other words, if the scale were filled 
with water it would hold two grams; but fat being only 
.9 as heavy, 2 cubic centimeters of it would weigh nine- 
tenths of two grams or 1.8 grams. This is exactly 10% 
of 18 grams, the weight of the sample used for testing. 
A milk bottle is shown in Fig. 2. 

C. Cream Bottles. These are graduated from 30% to 
55%. A 30% bottle is shown in Fig. 3. Since cream 
usually tests more than 30%, the sample must be divided 
when the 30% bottles are used. See p. 167. 



26 



CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 






Ktfe^ 



';^47^"l 



Fig. 3.— Cream 
bottle. 



Fig. 4.— Skim-milk 
bottle. 



D. Skim=milk Bottle. This bottle, shown in Fig. 4, 
is provided with a double neck, a large one to admit the 
milk, and a smaller graduated neck for fat reading. The 
entire scale reads one-half per cent. Being divided into 
ten subdivisions each subdivision reads .05%. The same 
bottle is also used for testing buttermilk. 



THE BABCOCK THST 



27 



m 



1!^ 




Fig. 6.- 
Acid meas- 
ure. 



Fig. 7 - 
Acid meas- 
ure. 



E. Pipette. This holds 17.6 c.c, as shown 
in Fig. 5. Since about .i c.c. of milk will 
adhere to the inside of the pipette it is ex- 
pected to deliver only 17.5 c.c, which is equiva- 
lent to 18 grams of normal milk. 

F. Acid Measures. In making a Babcock 
test equal quantities, by volume, of acid and 
milk are used. The acid measure, shown in 

Fig. 6, holds 17.5 c.c. of acid, the amount needed for one 
test. The one shown in Fig. 7 is divided into six divisions, 
each of which holds 17.5 c.c. or one charge of acid. Where 



Fig. 5.— Pi 
pette. 



28 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



many tests are made a graduate of this kind saves time 
in filling, but should be made to hold twenty-five charges. 

H. A cream scales commonly used is illustrated in 
Fig. 8. 

Acid. The acid used in the test is commercial sul- 




Fig. 8.— Cream Scales. (See pp. 167 and 168.) 

phuric acid having a specific gravity of 1.82 
to 1.83. When the specific gravity of the 
acid falls below 1.82 the milk solids are not 
properly burned and particles of curd may 
appear in the fat. On the other hand, an 
acid with a specific gravity above 1.83 has 
a tendency to blacken or char the fat. 

The sulphuric acid, besides burning the 
solids not fat, facilitates the separation of 
the fat by raising the specific gravity of the 
medium in which it floats. 

Sulphuric acid must be kept in glass bot- 
tles provided with glass stoppers. Exposure 
to the air materially weakens it. 

Making a Babcock Test. The different steps are 
indicated as follows : 

1. Thoroughly mix the sample. 

2. Immediately after mixing insert the pipette into 
the milk and suck until the milk has gone above the mdrk^ 
on the pipette, then quickly place the fore finger over the 




Fig. 9.— Show- 
ing manner of 
emptying pi- 
pette. 



THE BABCOCK TEST 



29 



Zl^S 



top and allow the milk to run down to the mark by slowly 
relieving the pressure of the finger. 

3. Empty the milk into the bottle in the manner shown 
in Fig. 9. 

4. Add the acid in the same manner in which the milk 
was emptied into the bottle. 

5. Mix the acid with the milk by giving the bottle a 
slow rotary motion. 

6. Allow mixture to stand a few minutes. 

7. Shake or mix again and then place the b')t;'c in 
the tester. 

8. Run tester four minutes at the 
proper speed. 

9. Add moderately hot water until 
contents come to the neck of the 
bottle. 

10. Whirl one minute. 

11. Add moderately hot water un- 
til contents of the bottle reach about 
the 8% mark. 

12. Whirl one minute. 

13. Leave tester open a few min- 
utes. 

14. Read test. 
How to Read Milk Tests. At the 

top of the fat column is usually quite a 
pronounced meniscus as shown in Fig. 
10. A less pronounced one is found 
at the bottom of the column. The fat 
should be read from the extremes of 
the fat column, i to 3, not from 2 to 4, 
when its temperature is about 140° F. 
Too high a temperature gives too high 




Fi?. 10.— Fat column 
show ingmeniscuses. 



30 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



a reading, because of the expanded condition of the fat, 
while too low a temperature gives an uncertain reading. 




Fig. 12.— Milk bot- 
tle tester. 



I. Be sure you hav* 



Fig. 11. — Waste acid jar. 

Precautions in Making a Test. 

a fair sample. 

2. The temperature of the milk should be about 6o 
or yo degrees. 

3. Always mix twice after acid has been added. 

4. Be sure your tester runs at the right speed. 



THE BABCOCK TEST 31 

5. Use nothing but clean, soft water in filling the 
bottles. 

6. Be sure the tester does not jar. 

7. Be sure the acid is of the right strength. 

8. Mix as soon as acid is added to milk. 

9. Do not allow the bottles to become cold before 
reading the test. 

10. Read the test twice to insure a correct reading. 
The water added to the test bottles after they have been 

whirled should be clean and pure. Water containing 
much lime seriously affects the test. Such water may 
be used, however, when first treated with a few drops of 
sulphuric acid. 

As stated before skim-milk, buttermilk, and cream are 
tested in the same way as milk, with the exception that 
the cream sample is weighed not measured. 

Cleaning Test Bottles. As soon as the test is read, 
the bottles are emptied by shaking them up and down so 
as to remove the white sediment.- Next wash them in 
hot water containing some alkali, and finally rinse them 
with hot water. Occasionally the bottles should be rinsed 
with a special cleaning solution, which is made by dis- 
solving about one ounce of potassium bichromate in one 
pint of sulphuric acid. A small brush should also oc- 
casionally be run up and down the neck of the bottle. 

Testing or Calibrating Milk Bottles. Fill the bottle 
to the zero mark with water, or preferably wood alco- 
hol to which a little coloring matter has been added. 
Immerse the lower section of the tester, shown in Fig. 12, 
in the contents of the bottle. If the bottle is correct, the 
contents will rise to the 5% mark. Next immerse both 
sections of the tester which will bring the contents to 
the 10% mark if the bottle is correctly calibrated. 



32 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

It has been learned that the volume of the graduated 
part of the neck is 2 c.c. Each section of the tester is 
made to displace i c.c. when immersed in the liquid, 
hence the two sections will just fill the scale if the latter 
is correct. 

Calculating Speed of Tester. The speed at which 
a tester must be run is dependent upon the diameter of the 
wheel carrying the bottles. The larger this wheel the 
fewer the revolutions it must make per minute to efifect 
a complete separation of the fat. 

In the following table by Farrington and Woll the 
necessary speed per given diameter is calculated : 

Diameter of No. of revolutions 

wheel of zvheel 

in inches. per minute. 

10 1,074 

12 980 

14 909 

16 848 

18 800 

20 759 

22 724 

24 693 

General Pointers. Black fat is caused by 

1. Too strong acid. 

2. Too much acid. 

3. Too high a temperature of the acid or the milk. 

4. Not mixing soon enough. 

5. Dropping the acid through the milk. 

Foam on top of fat is caused by hard water, and can be 
prevented by adding a few drops of sulphuric acid to the 
water. 



THE BABCOCK TEST 33 



Unclean or cloudy fat is caused by 

1. Insufficient mixing. 

2. Too low speed of tester. 

3. Too low temperature. 

4. Too weak acid. 

Curd particles in fat are caused by 

1. Too weak acid. 

2. Not enough acid. 

3. Too low temperature. 



CHAPTER III. 



the: lactometer and its use. 



This instrument, shown in Fig. 13, is used to determine 
the specific gravity of milk. The stem has two scales 
upon it, a thermometer scale at the upper end and a lac- 
tometer scale at the lower. The latter scale reads from 
fifteen to forty, being divided into twenty-five divisions, 
each of which reads one lactometer degree. The lower 
end of the instrument consists of two bulbs : an upper one 
containing the mercury for the thermometer scale, and a 
lower and larger one weighted with shot or mercury 
which serves to immerse and to keep in an upright posi- 
tion the large oblong bulb or float below the stem. 

Making the Test. In making a lactometer test the 
sample of milk is carefully mixed and placed in the 
lactometer cylinder. (Fig. 14.) The lactometer is now 
carefully lowered into it and enough milk is added to the 
cylinder to fill it brim full. Now place your eye in a hori- 
zontal position with the surface of the liquid and read 
down as far as the liquid will permit. The reading thus 
obtained is the correct lactometer reading, provided the 
temperature as indicated by the thermometer scale is 60°. 

Corrections for Temperature. Lactometers are stan- 
dardized at a temperature of 60° F. ; but, since it is diffi- 
cult to have a sample always at this temperature, cor- 
rections may be made for temperatures ranging from 50° 
to 70°. As the temperature rises the liquid expands and 
the specific gravity decreases. This decrease amounts to 

34 



LACTOMETER AND ITS USE 



35 



oue-tcnth of a lactometer degree for every degree of tem- 
perature above 60. A decrease in temperature would 
result in a corresponding increase in the specific gravity. 
For every degree below 60, therefore, we subtract one- 
tenth degree from, and for every degree above 60 we 



Fig. 13. 
Lactom 
eter. 




Fig. 14.— Lactom- 
eter cylinder. 



add one-tenth degree to, the lactometer reading. Ex- 
amples : 

1. Lactometer reading is 32.5 at a temperature of 55. 
Corrected reading is 32.5 less .5, equals 32. 

2. Lactometer reading is 31.7 at a temperature of 63. 
Corrected reading is 31.7 plus .3, equals 32. 

Interpretation of Lactometer Reading. In the chap- 
ter on inilk we learned that normal milk has an average 



36 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

specific gravity of 1.032. This means that a tank that 
holds just 1,000 pounds of water would hold 1,032 pounds 
of milk. On the lactometer scale the i.o is omitted. A 
reading of 32, expressed in terms "of specific gravity, 
would therefore read 1.032. 

Precautions in Making a Lactometer Test. i. A 
lactometer test should not be made until three or four 
hours after the milk leaves the udder of the cow. The 
reason for this is that milk, immediately after it is drawn, 
holds mechanically mixed with it air and probably other 
gases, which tends to give too low a reading. 

2. The sample must be thoroughly mixed. If a layer 
of cream is allowed to form at the surface, the conse- 
quence is that the hollow oblong bulb will float in partially 
skimmed milk and give too high a reading. 

3. A dirty lactometer is certain to give a false reading. 
A lactometer should be washed in luke warm (not hot) 
water to which a little soda or other alkali has been added, 
and then rinsed off with clean water and wiped. 

II. MILK SOLIDS. 

The solids of milk include everything but the water. 
If a sample of milk be kept at the boiling temperature 
until all the water is evaporated, the dry, solid residue 
that remains constitutes the solids of milk. It is con- 
venient to divide the solids into two classes, one inclu- 
ding all the fat, the other all the solids which are not fat. 
In referring, therefore, to the different solids of milk, we 
speak of the "fat" and the "solids not fat" which, to- 
gether, constitute the "total solids." The amount of each 
of these different solids present in milk is easily seen from 
the composition of milk. Thus, besides water, milk con- 
tains : 



lACTOMBTBR AND ITS USB 



3.9^ fat 

2.9/^ casein 

0.5/^ albumen 

4.9^ sugar 

0.7^ ash 



= g.^ = solids not fat. 



Total i2.9^=total solids. 

Relationship of Fat and Solids not Fat. In normal 
milk a fairly definite relationship exists between the fat 
and the solids not fat. For example, milk rich in fat is 
likewise rich in solids not fat. On the other hand, milk 
poor in fat is also poor in solids not fat. As a general 
rule, an increase in the solids not fat always accompanies 
an increase in the percentage of fat. The increase is, 
however, not quite proportionate, the fat increasing the 
more rapidly. 

Since the casein represents the most valuable constitu- 
ent of the solids not fat, the following ratio between this 
substance and the fat very well illustrates the relation- 
ship that exists between the fat and solids not fat in milk : 

According to Van Slyke. 

Per cent fat. Per cent casein. 

3.00 2.10 

3.25 2.20 

350 2.30 

3-75 2.40 

4.00 2.50 

4.25 2.60 

4.50 2.70 

Specific Gravity as Affected by Richness of Milk. 

The richness of milk seems to have but a very slight 
efifect on its specific gravity. Usually a four per cent 
milk shows a slightly higher reading than a three per 



38 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

cent milk, but the specific gravity of a four per cent milk 
is practically the same as that of a four and one-half per 
cent milk. From what has been said about the relation- 
ship of the fat and solids not fat in milks of different 
richness, it is quite natural that the specific gravity of 
such milks should vary but little. If the fat alone were 
increased, the lactometer reading would naturally be de- 
pressed. But since the solids not fat increase in nearly 
the same proportion as the fat, the depression caused by 
the latter is compensated for by the former. 

Calculation of Milk Solids. The milk solids are cal- 
culated from the fat and the lactometer reading of milk. 
This is done by means of the following formula worked 
out at the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station : 

Formula for solids not fat equals one-fourth L R plus 
one-fifth F, in which L stands for lactometer, R for 
reading, and F for fat. Expressed in another way, the 
solids not fat are obtained by adding one-fifth of the fat 
to one-fourth of the lactometer reading. The total solids 
are obtained by adding the fat to the solids not fat. 
Examples : 

1. To calculate solids not fat when the milk shows a 
lactometer reading of 31.6 and fat reading of 3.5. Sub- 
stituting these figures for the letters in the formula, one- 
fourth L R plus one-fifth F, we get : 

(—T~ plus -F-) equals (7.9 plus .7) equals 8.6 equals 
solids not fat. 

2. The total solids in the above sample are obtained 
by adding the fat and solids not fat. Thus : 8.6 plus 3.5 
equals 12.1 equals total solids. 



LACrOMBTBR AND ITS USB 39 

III. DETECTION OF MILK ADULTERATION — WATERING AND 
SKIMMING. 

A knowledge of the methods of detecting watering and 
skimming of milk is in many cases of considerable value 
to butter makers, even when the milk is bought on the fat 
basis. Where the milk is bought irrespective of its fat 
content, such a knowledge is simply indispensable for the 
welfare of the creamery. 

In normal milk ranging in fat from 3% to 5%, it is 
not difficult to detect a moderate amount of watering and 
skimming. We speak of normal milk because this means 
the milk from a full milking and excludes colostrum milk, 
milk from diseased cows and those far advanced in lacta- 
tion. Normal milk cannot be expected when cows are 
either only partially milked, diseased, or very far ad- 
vanced in lactation. 

The accuracy of determining the amount of watering 
and skimming becomes greater in proportion as the sam- 
ple represents more cows. For example, no sample of 
milk from a herd consisting of six or more cows has been 
known to average below 3% fat. For this reason any 
sample of milk testing below 3%, when taken from a 
herd, is to be looked upon with suspicion. On the other 
hand there are records of individual cows that show tests 
as low as 1.7% and as high as 8%. It is owing to these 
e'xtreme variations in the composition of milk from indi- 
vidual cows, that small amounts of adulteration cannot 
be estimated with the same degree of accuracy in such 
milk as in herd milk. 

Detection of Adulteration. The general procedure in 
determining whether milk has been watered or skimmed, 
or both, is as follows : 



40 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

1. Determine the percentage of fat in the sample under 
consideration. 

2. Determine its specific gravity. 

. 3. From the fat and specific gravity calculate the solids 
not fat and total solids. 

4. Compare the results obtained with the average 
specific gravity, per cent of fat, solids not fat, and 
total solids given for normal cows' milk, or compare 
with the legal State Standard. 

5. In drawing conclusions remember that 

a. Fat is lighter than water. 

b. Milk is heavier than water. 

c. Skimming increases the lactometer reading. 

d. Skimming slightly increases solids not fat. 

e. Skimming decreases fat and total solids. ' 

f. Watering decreases fat, solids not fat, lac- 

tometer reading, and total solids. 

g. Watering and skimming decrease fat (ma- 

terially), solids not fat, and total solids. 
h. The solids not fat are less variable than the 

fat. 
i. Skimming and watering may give a normal 
lactometer reading. 
From i it is seen that a normal lactometer reading 
is possible when milk is skimmed and watered in the right 
proportions. A lactometer reading without a Babcock 
test is therefore worthless. 

For herd milk a lactometer reading above 33.5 is posi- 
tive evidence of skimming when accompanied with a low 
percentage of fat. Herd milk showing a lactometer read- 
ing below 28 is considered watered. 

Examples of milk adulteration in which only herd milk 
is considered are given as follows: 



LACTOMETER AND ITS USE 41 

I. Suspected sample shows: Normal milk shows: 

Lactometer reading 32 Lactometer reading 2>^ 

Fat 2.5 Fat 3.9 

Solids not fat 8.5 Solids not fat 8.78 

Total solids 11. o Total solids 12.68 

Conclusion : Sample is watered and skinimed because 
(a) lactometer reading is normal and fat low; (b) solids 
not fat are nearly normal and total solids low. 

2. Suspected sample shows : 

Lactometer reading 33 . 2 

Fat 3.1 

Solids not fat - 8.92 

Total solids 12 . 02 

Conclusion : Sample is skimmed because lactometer 
reading- is high and fat low. 

3. Suspected sample shows: 

Lactometer reading shows 29 

Fat 3.4 

Solids not fat 7 . 93 

Total solids . 1 1 . 33 

Conclusion : Sample is watered because everything 
is much below normal, which is to be expected in the case 
of watered milk. 



CHAPTER IV. 

BACTERIA AND MIIvK I^i:RME:NTATIONS. 

A thorough knowledge of bacteria and their action 
forms the basis of success in butter making. Indeed the 
man who is lacking such knowledge is making butter 
in the dark; his is chance work. Much attention will 
therefore be given to the study of these organisms in 
this work. 

I. BACTERIA. 

The term bacteria is applied to the smallest of living 
plants, which can be seen only under the highest powers 
of the miscroscope. Each bacterium is made up of a 
single cell. These plants are so small that it would 
require 30,000 of them laid side by side to measure an 
inch. Their presence is almost universal, being found 
in the air, water, and soil ; in cold, hot, and temperate 
climates; and in living and dead as well as inorganic 
matter. 

Bacteria grow with marvelous rapidity. A single bac- 
terium is capable of reproducing itself a million times 
in twenty- four hours. They reproduce either by a simple 
division of the mother cell, thus producing two new cells, 
or by spore formation in which case the contents of the 
mother cell are formed into a round mass called a spore. 
These spores have the power of withstanding unfavorable 
conditions to a remarkable extent, some being able to 
endure a temperature of 212° F. for several hours. 

Most bacteria require for best growth a moist, warm, 
and nutritious medium such as is furnished by milk, in 

42 



BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS 43 

which an exceedingly varied and active Hfe is possible. 
In nature and in many of the arts and industries, 
bacteria are of the greatest utility, if not indispensable. 
They play a most important part in the disintegration of 
vegetable and animal matter, resolving compounds into 
their elemental constituents in which form they can again 
be built up and used as plant food. In the art of butter 
and cheese making bacteria are indispensable. The to- 
bacco, tanning, and a host of other industries cannot 
flourish without them. 



II. MiivK fe:rme:ntations. 

Definition. In defining fermentation processes, Conn 
says that, "In general, they are progressive chemical 
changes taking place under the influence of certain 
organic substances which are present in very small 
quantity in the fermenting mass." 

With few exceptions, milk fermentations are the result 
of the growth and multiplication of various classes of 
bacteria. The souring of milk illustrates a typical fer- 
mentation, which is caused by the action of lactic acid 
bacteria upon the milk sugar breaking it up into lactic 
acid. Here the chemical change is conversion of sugar 
into lactic acid. 

The most common fermentations of milk are the fol- 
lowing : 

r Lactic. 

I Normal -j Curdling and Digesting. 

I [ Butyric. 



Milk Fermentations 



Abnormal 



' Bitter. 
Slimy or Ropy. 
-< Gassy. 
I Toxic. 
[ Chromogenic. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



NORMAi, ferme:ntations. 



We speak of normal fermentations because milk always 
contains certain classes of bacteria even when drawn and 
kept under cleanly conditions. These fermentations will 
be discussed in the following pages. 

I. LACTIC fe:rme:ntation. 

This is the most common and by far the most important 
fermentation of milk. Indeed it is indispensable in the 
manufacture of butter of the highest quality. The germ 
causing this fermentation is called Lactici Acidi. It is 
non-spore bearing and has its optimum growth tempera- 
ture between 90° and 98° F. At 40° its growth ceases. 
Exposed to a temperature of 140° for fifteen minutes 
it is killed. 

The souring of milk and cream, as already mentioned, 
is due to the action of the lactic acid bacteria upon the 
milk sugar changing it into lactic acid. Acid is therefore 
always produced at the expense of milk sugar. But the 
sugar is never all converted into acid because the pro- 
duction of acid is limited. When the acidity reaches 
about .9% the lactic acid bacteria are either checked or 
killed and the production of acid ceases. Owing to the 
universal presence of these bacteria it is almost impossible 
to secure milk free from them. 

Under cleanly conditions the lactic acid type of bacteria 
always predominates in milk. When, however, milk is 
drawn under uncleanly conditions the lactic organisms 
may be outnumbered by other species of bacteria which 
give rise to the numerous taints often met with in milk. 

Contradictory as it may seem, the lactic acid bacteria 
are alike friend and foe to the butter maker. Creamery 



BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS 45 

patrons are expected to have milk as free as possible 
from these germs so that it may arrive at the creamery 
in a sweet condition. They are therefore expected to 
thoroughly cool and care for it, not alone to suppress 
the action of the lactic acid bacteria but also that of the 
abnormal species that might have gained access to the 
milk. 

While the acid bacteria are objectionable in milk, in 
cream made into butter they are indispensable. The 
highly desirable aroma in butter is the result of the 
growth of these organisms in the process of cream 
ripening. There are a number of different species of 
bacteria that have the power of producing lactic acid. 

2. CURDLING AND DIG£:STING FERMENTATION. 

In point of numbers this class of bacteria ranks perhaps 
next to the lactic acid type. Indeed it is very difficult to 
obtain milk that does not contain them. It is not often, 
however, that their presence is noticeable owing to their 
inability to thrive in an acid medium. 

According to bacteriologists most of these bacteria 
secrete two enzymes, one of which has the power of 
curdling milk, the other of digesting it. The former 
has the power of rennet-, the latter of trypsin. ''As a 
rule," says Russell, ''any organism that possesses the 
digestive power, first causes a coagulation of the casein 
in a manner comparable to rennet." 

It is only occasionally when the lactic acid organisms 
Are in a great minority, or when for some reason their 
action has been suppressed, that this class of bacteria 
manfests itself by curdling milk while sweet. The curd 
thus formed differs from that produced by lactic acid in 
being soft and slimy. 



46 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Most of the curdling and digesting bacteria are spore 
bearing and can thus withstand unfavorable conditions 
better than the lactic acid bacteria. For this reason milk 
that has been heated sufficiently to kill the lactic acid 
bacteria, will often undergo the undesirable changes 
attributable to the digesting and curdling organisms. 

3. BUTYRIC :^krme:ntation. 

It was mentioned that many bacteria have the power 
of producing lactic acid but that the true lactic acid fer- 
mentation is probably caused by a single species. So it 
is with the butyric acid bacteria. While a number of 
different organisms are known to produce this acid, Conn 
is of the opinion that the common butyric fermentation 
of milk and cream is due to a single species belonging 
to the anaerobic type. 

The butyric acid produced by these organisms is the 
chief cause of rancid flavors in cream and butter. These 
bacteria are widely distributed in nature, being particu- 
larly abundant in filth. They are almost universally 
present in milk, from which they are hard to eradicate 
on account of their resistant spores. It is on account 
of these spores and their ability to grow in the absence 
of oxygen that the butyric fermentation is often found 
in ordinary sterilized milk from which the air has been 
excluded. 

The influence of the butyric acid bacteria is felt mainly 
in butter and in overripened cream. The latter frequently 
possesses a rancid odor which must be charged to these 
bacteria, especially since it is known that overripened 
cream possesses conditions favorable for their develop- 
ment. Overripening should, therefore, be carefully 
guarded against. 



BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS 47 

The butyric fermentation is rarely noticeable during 
the early stage of cream ripening and its subsequent 
development in a highly acid cream is explained by 
Russell as being "probably due, not so much to the pres- 
ence of lactic acid, as to the absence of dissolved oxygen, 
which at this stage has been used up by the lactic acid 
organisms." 

Butter that is apparently good in quality when freshly 
made, will usually turn rancid when kept at ordinary 
temperatures a short time. The quickness with which 
this change comes is dependent largely upon the amount 
of acid present in cream at the time of churning. Butter 
made from cream in which the maximum amount of acid 
consistent with good flavor has been developed, usually 
possesses poor keeping quality. This seems to indi- 
cate that at least part of the rancidity that develops in 
butter after it is made is due to the butyric acid bacteria, 
while light and air, doubtless, also contribute much to 
this end. 

ABNORMAL FERMENTATIONS. 

No trouble needs to be anticipated from these fermenta- 
tions so long as cleanliness prevails in the dairy. The 
bacteria that belong to this class are usually associated 
with filth, and dairies that become infested with them 
show a lack of cleanliness in the care and handling of the 
milk. Since milk is frequently infected with one or 
another of these abnormal fermentations a brief discus- 
sion will be given of the most important. 

I. BITTER FERMENTATION. 

Bitter milk and cream are quite common and there are 
several ways in which this bitterness is imparted : it may 



48 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

be due to strippers' milk and to certain classes of feeds 
and weeds, but most frequently to bacteria. This class 
of bacteria has not yet been studied very thoroughly but 
we know a great deal about it in a practical way. In 
milk and cream in which the action of the lactic acid 
germs has been suppressed by low temperatures, bitter- 
ness due to the development of the bitter fermentation is 
almost certain to be noticeable. When the temperature 
is such as to cause a rapid development of the lactic 
fermentation, the bitter fermentation is rarely, if ever, 
present. It is quite evident from this that the bitter 
organisms are capable of growing at much lower tem- 
peratures than the lactic and that so long as the latter 
are rapidly growing the bitter fermentation is held in 
check. 

This teaches us that it is not safe to ripen cream below 
60° F. The author has found that cream quickly ripened 
and then held at a temperature of 45° for twenty-four 
hours would show no tendency toward bitterness, while 
the same cream held sweet at 45° for twenty- four hours 
and then ripened would develop a bitter flavor. This 
indicates that the lactic acid is unfavorable to the develop- 
ment of the bitter fermentation. 

The bitter germs produce spores capable of resisting 
the boiling temperature. This accounts for the bitter 
taste that often develops in boiled milk. 

2. SLIMY OR ROPY FERMENTATION. 

This is not a common fermentation and rarely 
causes trouble where cleanliness is practiced in the dairy. 
The bacteria that produce it are usually found in impure 
water, dust, and dung. These germs are antagonistic to 



BACTERIA AND MILK FERMENTATIONS 49 

the lactic organisms and for this reason milk infected 
v/ith them sours with great difficulty. 

The action of this class of bacteria is to increase the 
viscosity of milk, which in mild cases simply assumes a 
slimy appearance. In extreme cases, however, the milk 
develops into a ropy consistency, permitting it to be 
Strung out in threads several feet long. 

Slimy or ropy milk cannot be creamed and is therefore 
worthless in the manufacture of butter. Such milk should 
not be confused with gargety milk which is stringy when 
drawn from the cow. The bacteria belonging to this class 
are easily destroyed as they do not form spores. 

3. GASSY FERMENTATION. 

This is an exceedingly troublesome fermentation in 
cheese making and is also the cause of much poor flavored 
butter. The gas germs are very abundant during the 
warm summer months but are scarcely noticeable in 
winter. Like the bitter germs, they are antagonistic to 
the lactic acicl bacteria and do not grow during the rapid 
development of the latter. They are found most abun- 
dantly in the barn, particularly in dung. 

4. TOXIC FERMENTATIONS. 

Toxic or poisonous products are occasionally developed 
in milk as a result of bacterial activity. They are most 
commonly found in milk that has been kept for some 
time at low temperature. 

5. CHROMOGENIC FERMENTATIONS. 

Bacteria belonging to this class have the power of 
imparting to milk various colors. The most common of 



50 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

these is blue. It is, however, not often met with in dairy 
practice since the color usually does not appear until the 
milk is several days old. The specific organism that 
causes blue milk has been known for more than half a 
century and is called cyanogenous. Another color that 
rarely turns up in dairy practice is produced by a germ 
known as prodigiosis, causing milk to turn red. Other 
colors are produced such as yellow, green, and black, but 
these are of very rare occurrence. 



CHAPTER V. 

COMPOSITE SAMPLING. 

Where milk is bought on the fat basis, it is essential 
that it be sampled daily as it arrives at the creamery. It 
is not practicable, however, to make daily tests of the 
samples because this would involve too much work. Each 
patron is therefore provided with a pint jar to which, 
samples of his milk are added daily for one or two 
weeks, the sample thus secured being called a composite 
sample. A test of this composite sample represents the 
average percentage of butter fat in the milk for the period 
during which the sample was gathered. 

Careful experiments have shown that quite as accurate 
results can be obtained with the composite method of 
testing as is possible by daily tests, besides saving a great 
deal of work. This has lead to its universal adoption 
wherever milk is bought by the Babcock test. 

All composite jars should be carefully labeled by plac- 
ing numbers upon them. These numbers should be writ- 
ten in large indelible figures as exhibited by the composite 
jar shown in Fig. 15. Shelves are provided in the intake 
upon which the jars are arranged in regular consecutive 
order. Numbers corresponding to those on the jars are 
placed on the milk sheet opposite the names of the patrons 
which should be arranged alphabetically. 

Taking the Samples. Whatever the method of sam- 
pling, all milk should be sampled immediately after it 
enters the weigh can, not, as is frequently the case, after 
it is weighed. 

SI 



52 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

Most of the sampling is clone by either of two methods : 
(i) by means of a half ounce dipper, shown in Fig. i6, 
or (2) by means of long narrow tubes, one of which is 
shown in Fig. 17. 

The dipper furnishes a simple and easy means of 
sampling milk. Where the milk is thoroughly mixed, 
and the variations in quantity from day to day are slight, 
the dipper method of sampling is accurate. 

The other method of sampling is illustrated by the 
Scovell sampler (Fig. 17). The main tube of the sampler 
is open at both ends, the lower of which closely fits into 
a cap provided with three elliptical openings. As the 
sampler is lowered into the milk the latter rushes through 
the openings filling the tube to the height of the milk in 
the can. When the cap strikes the bottom of the can 
the tube slides over the openings, thus permitting the 
sample to be withdrawn and emptied into the composite 
jar. 

This sampler has the advantage of always taking an 
aliquot portion of the milk, and furnishing an accurate 
sample when the sampling is somewhat delayed, because 
it takes as much milk from the top as it does from the 
bottom of the can. 

The McKay sampler designed by McKay, works on 
the same principle as the Scovell and has proven very 
satisfactory. 

Preservatives. Milk cannot be satisfactorily tested 
after it has loppered owing to the difficulty of securing 
an accurate sample. This makes it necessary to add some 
preservative to the composite samples to keep them sweet. 

The best preservatives for this purpose are corrosive 
sublimate, formalin, and bichromate of potash. All of 
these are poisons and care must be taken to place them 



COMPOSITE SAMPLING 



53 




Fig. 16.— Milk 
sampler. 



Fig. 17 — 
Scovell 
sampling 
tube. 



where children, and others unfamiHar with their poison- 
ous properties, can not have access to them. 

The bichromate of potash and corrosive siibhmate can 
be purchased in tablet form, each tablet containing enough 
preservative to keep a pint of milk sweet for about two 



54 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

weeks. The tablets color the milk so that there can be 
no mistake about its unfitness for consumption. 

When colorless preservatives are used, like ordinary 
formalin and corrosive sublimate, a little analine dye 
should be added to prevent mistaking the identity of 
milk treated with these preservatives. 

During the warm summer time the bichromate of 
potash is not as satisfactory as either of the other two 
preservatives mentioned, because of its comparative weak- 
ness and liability to interfere with the test when too much 
of it is used. When the bichromate is used in the ordi- 
nary solid form not more than a piece the size of a pea 
should be used, otherwise a good, clear test is not possible. 

For spring, fall, and winter use, however, bichromate of 
potash is excelled by no other preservative, either in 
cheapness, or safety and convenience in handling. 

Care of Composite Samples. It is a duty which the 
butter maker owes his patrons to keep the sample jars 
carefully locked up in the refrigerator when not in use 
so as to prevent the possibility of anyone's tampering with 
them. This will serve the additional purpose of excluding 
the light and heat from the samples, for they will keep 
but a short time when exposed to light and heat. 

When the sample jars are permitted to stand a few days 
without shaking, the cream which rises will dry and 
harden, especially that in contact with the sides of the 
jar, so that it becomes difficult to secure a fair sample 
on testing day without special treatment of the sample. 
This is prevented by giving the jar a rotary motion every 
time a sample of milk is added. 

It is important, too, that the covers of the jars fit tight, 
otherwise evaporation takes place, resulting in an in- 
creased test. In several instances the author has ob- 



COMPOSITE SAMPLING 55 

served that the butter maker (?) did not cover the jars 
at all ! Can we wonder why patrons complain so fre- 
quently about the testing? Where the jars are kept 
uncovered for several weeks the cream is in a condition 
in which it can not be reincorporated with the milk and 
the Babcock test in this case becomes truly a snare and 
delusion. 

Should the samples show any dried or churned cream 
on testing day, the sample jars must be placed in water at 
a temperature of iio° F. for five or ten minutes to allow 
the cream or butter to melt. When this is done the 
sample for the test bottle must be taken instantly after 
mixing, as the melted fat separates very quickly. 

Frequency of Testing. It must not be supposed that 
if enough preservative can be added to the sample jars to 
keep the milk sweet for a month or longer that it is just 
as well to make monthly tests as weekly. Far from it. Even 
if the milk does remain sweet, the tendency of the cream 
to churn and become dried and crusty is in itself sufficient 
protest against monthly testing. It is rare, indeed, that 
samples that have been kept for a month or longer can be 
sampled satisfactorily without warming them in a water 
bath, which means a great deal, of extra work. 

The best tests are secured when the samples are tested 
weekly or at most every two weeks. When the tests 
are made weekly it rarely becomes necessary to warm the 
samples if they have been properly cared for. Then, 
too, if an error is made anywhere in the testing, there 
are three other tests for the month that help to mini- 
mize It. It is not strange at all that a sample jar 
should break occasionally. If the jar should contain a 
whole month's milk the patron is deprived of his test for 



56 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



that month. On the weekly basis of testing there would 
still be three tests to fall back on. 

Supervision of Test. To relieve the butter maker 
from any suspicion of unfairness or carelessness in the 
testing of the composite samples, one or two of the patrons 
should be present at each testing. When one of the 
patrons thus witnesses the details of the testing and is 
furnished with a copy of the test, the butter maker is 
practically exempt from the suspicions that usually rest 
upon him, no matter how honest or careful a man he 
may be. 

Duplicate Set of Jars. Where the testing is not 
under the supervision of one of the patrons, some butter 
makers have adopted the scheme of providing a double 
set of sample jars. After the test is made the jars, instead 
of being emptied, are set aside for a week, so that any- 
one who has any complaint to offer on the test may call 
on the buttermaker for a retest, another set of sample 
jars being used in the meantime. 

Composite Cream Samples. When cream is received 
in good condition, the method of composite sampling may 
be employed in the same manner as with milk. 





Fig. 15.— Composite 
test jar. 



G*ass top composite jar. 



CHAPTER VI. 



CREAMING. 



Definition. Milk upon standing soon separates into 
two portions, one called cream, the other skim-milk. This 
process of separation is known as creaming, and is due 
to the difference in the specific gravity of the fat and 
the milk serum. The fat being light and insoluble, rises, 
carrying with it the other constituents in about the same 
proportion in which they are found in milk. The fat 
together with these other constituents forms the cream. 
After the cream has been skimmed off, there remains a 
more or less fat-free watery portion called skim-milk. 

Processes of Creaming. The processes by which milk 
is creamed may be divided into two general classes : ( i ) 
that in which milk is placed in shallow pans or long 
narrow cans and allowed to set for about twenty- four 
hours, a process known as natural or gravity creaming; 
(2) that in which gravity is aided by subjecting the milk 
to centrifugal force, a process known as centrifugal 
creaming. The centrifugal force has the effect of increas- 
ing the force of gravity many thousands of times, thus 
causing an almost instantaneous creaming. This force 
is generated in the cream separator. 

Before the days of the centrifugal cream separator, 
creameries either bought the milk and creamed it at the 
creamery by the gravity process, or bought and gathered 
the cream that had been creamed at the farms by the same 
process. The practice of gathering cream is now exten- 
sively employed by creameries throughout the country; 

57 



58 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

but the cream thus gathered is largely the product of 
the cream separator, only a small portion being still 
creamed by the gravity process. The discussion on 
creaming will therefore be confined to the centrifugal 
process. 

CREAM SEPARATORS. 

History. The cream separator had its beginning in 
1864 when Prandtl, of Munich, creamed milk by means 
of two cylindrical buckets revolving upon a spindle. In 
1874 Lefeldt constructed a separator with a revolving 
drum similar to the later hollow bowl separators. This 
drum had a speed of 800 revolutions per minute. But 
it lacked an arrangement permitting a continuous 
discharge of cream and skim-milk, so that the separator 
had to be stopped at regular intervals when the cream 
was skimmed off, the skim-milk removed, and the bowl 
refilled for the next separation. 

It was not until 1879 that real separators appeared 
upon the market. During this year two machines were 
perfected which permitted continuous cream and skim- 
milk discharges. One was known as the Danish Weston, 
invented in Denmark, the other the De Laval, invented in 
Sweden. Both of these separators were hollow bowl 
machines. 

Other separators soon followed but no decided improve- 
ment was made until 1891, when the De Laval separator 
appeared with a series of discs inside the bowl which 
had the effect of separating the milk in thin layers, thus 
increasing both the efficiency and the capacity of the 
separator. Since then various bowl devices have been 
invented by numerous separator manufacturers. 



CREAMING 59 

Hand separators first appeared on the market in 1886. 
They are extensively used on dairy farms at the present 
time and are rapidly replacing the gravity methods of 
creaming. 

In 1887 a machine appeared on the market which ex- 
tracted the butter directly from sv^eet milk. This machine 
was called butter extractor. The butter made with 
the extractor was inferior in quality and the machine 
has practically gone out of existence. 

Choice of Separator. In choosing a cream separator 
we should be guided by three things: i. Efficiency of 
skimming; 2. Power required to operate; 3. Its durability. 

I. EFFICIENCY OF SKIMMING. 

Under favorable conditions a separator should not leave 
more than .05% fat in the skim-milk by the Babcock test. 
There are a number of conditions that affect the efficiency 
of skimming and these must be duly considered in making 
a separator test. The following are some of these con- 
ditions : 

A. Speed of bowl. 

B. Steadiness of motion. 

C. Temperature of milk. 

D. Manner of heating milk. 

E. Amount of milk skimmed per hour. 

F. Acidity of milk. 

G. Viscosity of milk. 
H. Richness of cream. 

I. Stage of lactation. (Stripper's milk.) 

A. The greater the speed the more efficient the cream- 
ing, other conditions the same. It is important to see 



60 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

that the separator runs at full speed during the separating 
process. The speed indicator should always be applied 
before turning on the milk and several times during the 
run. Loose belts, pulleys slipping on the shaft, and low 
steam pressure will reduce the speed of the separator. 

B. A separator should run as smoothly as a top. The 
slightest trembling will increase the loss of fat in the 
skim-milk. Trembling of bowl may be caused by any of 
the following conditions: (i) loose bearings, (2) sepa- 
rator out of plum, (3) dirty oil or dirty bearings, (4) un- 
stable foundation, or (5) unbalanced bowl. 

C. The best skimming is not possible with any sepa- 
rator when the temperature falls below 60° F. A tem- 
perature of 85° F. is the most satisfactory for ordinary 
skimming. Under some conditions the cleanest skimming 
is obtained at temperatures above 100° F. The reason 
in ilk separates better at the higher temperatures is that 
the viscosity is reduced. 

D. Sudden heating tends to increase the loss of fat 
in skim-milk in ordinary skimming. The reason for this 
is that the fat heats more slowly than the milk serum 
which diminishes the difference between their densities. 
When, for example, milk is suddenly heated from near 
the freezing temperature to 85° F. by applying live steam, 
the loss of fat in the skim-milk may be four times as 
great as it is under favorable conditions. If, instead of 
suddenly heating the milk to 85°, it is heated to 160° or 
above, then no extra loss of fat occurs. Hence the ad- 
vantage of separating milk at pasteurizing temperature 
during the winter. 

E. Unduly crowding a separator increases the loss 
of fat in the skim-milk. On the other hand, a marked 
underfeeding is apt to lead to the same result. 



CREAMING 61 

F. The higher the acidity of mihv the poorer the 
creaming. With sour milk the loss of fat in the skim- 
milk becomes very great. This emphasizes the importance 
of having the milk delivered to the creamery in a sweet 
condition. 

G. Sometimes large numbers of undesirable (slimy) 
bacteria find entrance into milk and materially increase its 
viscosity. This results in very unsatisfactory creaming. 
Low temperatures also increase the viscosity of milk 
which accounts for the poor skimming at these tempera- 
tures. 

H. Most of the standard makes of separators will do 
satisfactory work when delivering cream of a richness of 
50%. A richer cream is liable to result in a richer skim- 
milk. The reason for this is that in rich cream the 
skim-milk is taken close to the cream line where the skim- 
milk is richest. 

I. Owing to the very small size of the fat globules 
in stripper's milk, such milk is more difficult to cream 
than that produced in the early period of lactation. 

Keeping the Bearings Clean. To insure a smooth and 
easy running of the separator, the bearings must be kept 
free from any traces of gummyness by frequently wash- 
ing them with kerosene or gasoline. 

SEPARATING TEMPERATURE. 
During the summer time, when milk is fresh and re- 
quires little heating, a separating temperature of 70° F. 
gives good results. In the late fall and during the winter, 
when milk is received cold and often two days old, it 
is necessary to raise the temperature of the milk to 85° 
before separating. When milk is received in a partly 
frozen condition or when permeated with bad odors, a 



62 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

separating- temperature of 140° to 170° is preferred. 
Whenever such high temperatures are employed it is 
necessary to cool the cream immediately after it leaves the 
separator to a temperature of 70° or lower. 

MIIvK HEATERS. 

There are to be found upon the market two general 
classes of milk heaters : Those which admit the steam 
directly to the milk called direct heaters, and those in 
which the steam enters a jacket surrounding the milk 
known as indirect heaters. 

Direct Heaters. These are practically nothing more 
than an expansion in the 'feed pipe in which the steam 
enters the milk. They are permissible only when first class 
steam is available and when milk is to be heated through 
a short range of temperature. But even under these con- 
ditions indirect heaters are always preferred. 

The two main objections to the direct heaters are: (i) 
the liability of contaminating the milk with impure steam, 
and (2) the effect of the sudden heating upon the loss of 
fat in the skimmilk which may be quite considerable when 
the milk is heated through a long range of temperature. 

It is well known that the exhaustiveness of skimming 
with any separator is greatly influenced by the manner in 
which the milk is heated. In general very sudden heating 
has the effect of diminishing the difference in the specific 
gravity between the fat and milk serum, consequently 
rendering the separation of the fat from the milk more 
difficult. 

In experiments conducted by the author it was found 
that in many instances where the milk was received in a 
partly frozen condition and suddenly heated to a separat- 



CREAMING 



63 



ing temperature of 80° to 85- F., the loss of fat in the 
skimmilk was from .08% to .12%. When, however, 
such milk was suddenly heated to a temperature of 160° 
F. or above, the loss of fat in the skimmilk was from 
.02% to .03%. 

The addition of water to the milk through the conden- 
sation of the steam is also objectionable in heating milk 
with steam direct. 

The practice of turning steam into milk should be 
abandoned. 




Fig. 19.— Milk heater. 

Indirect Heaters. A satisfactory heater of this class 
is shown in Fig. 19. In this heater the steam passes into 
a series of hollow discs, which is in motion during the 
heating process, agitating the milk so as to insure uniform 
heating. 

A heater like that shown in Fig. 20 has proven satis- 
factory as a heater and has the further advantage of 
elevating the milk. 



RICHNESS 01? CREAM. 

How Regulated. The richness of cream is usually 



64 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



regulated by means of a cream screw in the separator 
bowl. When a rich cream is desired the screw is turned 
toward the center of the bowl, and for a thin cream it is 
turned away from the center. 

The richness of cream 
is also affected by the 
rate of separation. With 
all separators the more 
milk separated per hour 
and the lower the speed 
the thinner the cream. 
Too low a speed always 
results in a rich skim- 
milk and poor cream. 
Temperatures between 
^^ 60° and 90° have little 
effect on the richness of 

cream. When, how- 
Fig. 20. -Heat^and Pasteurizer which ever, the temperature is 
elevates milk and cream. ^^-^^^ ^^ ^^^o ^^ ^^^^^^ 

the cream becomes thinner. 

Advantages of Rich Cream. In whole milk cream- 
eries 45% is about the ideal richness of cream. Where a 
large amount of starter is to be added to the cream it is 
necessary to -separate a rich cream so that the starter 
will not bring it below the churning richness. 

In case milk is tainted it is desirable to separate a very 
heavy cream so as to get rid of as much milk serum as 
possible. In this way most of the taints, which develop 
in the milk serum, can be gotten rid of. The cream is then 
reduced to churning richness with starter, or partly with 
starter and partly with fine flavored milk. 

The fat globules in a rich cream are close together 




CREAMING 65 

which permits churning at a comparatively low tempera- 
ture. The chief advantage gained in this is the greater 
exhaustiveness of churning. 

For hand separator cream, 40% should be placed as 
the limit. 

A further discussion of this subject will be found on 
page 22,7. 

CREAM COOLING. 

With the modern cream ripeners no special cream 
cooler is necessary since the cooling is very quickly 
done in the ripener. Cream should be cooled to about 
70° F. as quickly as possible after separating. Where a 
large amount of starter is used, cream may be satisfactorily 
ripened at 65° F. 
5 



CHAPTER VII. 

CREAM RIPENING. 

This chapter will be discussed under three heads : 

Part I. Theory and Methods of Cream Ripening. 
Part 11. The Control of the Ripening Process. 
Part III. Cream Acid Tests. 

PART I. — THEORY AND METHODS OE CREAM RIPENING. 

Cream ripening is a process of fermentation in which 
the lactic acid organisms play the chief role. In every-day 
language, cream ripening means the souring of the cream. 
So important is this process that the success or failure of 
the butter maker is largely determined by his ability to 
exercise the proper control over it. In common creamery 
practice the time consumed in the ripening of cream varies 
from six to twenty- four hours and includes all the changes 
which the cream undergoes from the time it leaves the 
separator to the time it enters the churn. 

Object. The ripening of cream has for its prime 
object the development of flavor and aroma in butter, 
two qualities usually expressed by the word flavor. In 
addition to this, cream ripening has several minor pur- 
poses, namely : ( i ) renders cream more easily churnable ; 
(2) obviates difficulties from frothing or- foaming in 
churning; (3) permits a higher churning temperature; 
(4) increases the keeping quality of butter. 

Flavor. This, so far as known at the present time, 

66 



CREAM RIPENING 67 

is the result of the development of the lactic fermentation. 
If other fd'rmentations aid in the production of this im- 
portant quality of butter, they must be looked upon as 
secondary. In practice the degree or intensity of flavor 
is easily controlled by governing the formation of lactic 
acid. That is, the flavor develops gradually with the 
increase in the acidity of the cream. Sweet cream butter 
for example is almost entirely devoid of flavor, while 
cream with an average richness possesses the maximum 
amount of good flavor possible when the acidity has 
reached .6%. 

Exhaustive experiments conducted by the author (See 
Rept. Wis. Exp. Sta., 1905) show that the desirable butter 
flavor develops in the milk serum (skimmilk) and is 
absorbed from this by the butterfat. Such absorption may 
take place either during the ordinary course of cream 
ripening, or during the process of churning as would be 
the case when' well ripened skimmilk (starter) is added 
to sweet cream and the mixture churned immediately. 
This explains why in creamery practice such good results 
have been obtained by churning sweet cream immediately 
after the addition of a large amount of well ripened 
starter. 

Churnability. Practical experience shows that sour 
cream is more easily churnable than sweet cream. This 
is explained by the fact that the development of acid in 
cream tends to diminish its viscosity. The concussion pro- 
duced in churning causes the little microscopic fat glob- 
ules to flow together and coalesce, ultimately forming the 
small granules of butter visible in the churn. A high 
viscosity impedes the movement of these globules. It is 



68 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

evident, therefore, that anything that reduces the viscosity 
of cream, will facilitate the churning. 

As a rule, too, the greater the churnability of cream 
the smaller the loss of fat in the buttermilk. 

Frothing. Experience shows that ripened cream is 
less subject to frothing or foaming than unripened. This 
is probably due to the reduced viscosity of ripened cream 
and the consequent greater churnability of same. 

Temperature. Sour cream can be churned at higher 
temperatures than sweet cream with less loss of fat in 
the buttermilk. This is of great practical importance 
since it would be difficult, if not impossible, for most 
creameries to get low enough temperatures for the suc- 
cessful churning of sweet cream. Indeed, many cream- 
eries fail to get a low enough churning temperature for 
ripened cream. 

Keeping Quality. It has been found that butter with 
the best keeping quality is obtained from well ripened 
cream. It is true, however, that butter made from cream 
that has been ripened a little too far will posesss very 
poor keeping quality. An acidity of .5% should be placed 
as the limit when good keeping quality is desired. 

METHODS OF CREAM RIPENING. 

There are three ways in which cream is ripened at the 
present time : 

1. By the unaided development of the lactic fermenta- 
tion called natural ripening. 

2. By first destroying the bulk of the bacteria in cream 
by heat and then inoculating same with cultures of 
lactic acid bacteria. This method is known as pasteurised 
cream ripening. 



CREAM RIPENING 69 

3. By the aided development of the lactic fermenta- 
tion called starter ripening. 

I. NATURAL RIPENING. 

By this is meant the natural souring of the cream. In 
this method no attempt is made to repress the abnormal 
fermentations or to assist in the development of the lactic. 
From the chapter on Milk Fermentations we have learned 
that milk normally contains a number of dififerent kinds 
of germs, frequently as many as a dozen or more. Natur- 
ally, therefore, where this method of ripening is practiced, 
a number of fermentations must go on simultaneously and 
the flavor of the butter is impaired to the extent to which 
the abnormal fermentations have developed. If the cream 
is clean and uncontaminated the lactic fermentation 
greatly predominates and the resulting flavor is good. If, 
on the other hand, the cream happens to contain many bad 
germs the probability is that the abnormal ferments will 
predominate and the flavor of the butter will be badly 
"of¥." 

Where cream is therefore allowed to take its own course 
in ripening the quality of the butter is a great uncertainty. 
This method, though still practiced by many butter mak- 
ers, is to be condemned as obsolete and unsatisfactory. 

2. PASTEURIZED CREAM RIPENING. 

Theoretically and practically the ideal way of making 
butter is to pasteurize the cream, a process which consists 
in heating cream momentarily to a temperature of 160° 
to 185° F. and then quickly cooling to 60° F. In this 
manner most of the bacteria in the cream are destroyed. 
After this treatment the cream is heavily inoculated with 
the lactic acid bacteria, and the lactic fermentation is given 



70 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

a favorable temperature for development. When cream 
is treated in this way the lactic fermentation is practically 
the only one present and a butter v^ith the desirable flavor 
and aroma is the result. It is the only way in which a 
uniform quality of butter can be secured from day to day. 
This system of cream ripening is almost universally fol- 
lowed in Denmark, whose butter is recognized in all the 
world's markets as possessing qualities of superior excel- 
lence. The method is also gradually gaining favor in 
America and its general adoption can only be a matter of 
time. In the chapter on Cream Pasteurization this method 
's discussed in detail. 

3. STARTER RIPENING. 

This method of ripening consists in adding "starters," 
jr carefully selected sour milk, to the cream after it leaves 
the separator. A full discussion of starters will be found 
in the following chapter. 

In America this is at present the most popular method 
of cream ripening. While it does not, and can not, give 
the uniformly good results obtained by pasteurizing the 
cream, it is far superior to natural or unaided ripening. 

When we have a substance which contains many kinds 
of bacteria, there naturally follows a struggle for exist- 
ence and the fittest of the species will predominate. 

We always have a number of different types of bacteria 
in cream, both desirable and undesirable. The latter can 
be held in check by making the conditions as favorable 
as possible for the former. Fortunately, when milk is 
properly cared for the latic acid germs always pre- 
dominate. But where milk is received at the creamery 
from 30 to 200 patrons, undesirable germs are frequently 
';)resent in such, large numbers as to seriously endanger 



CREAM RIPENING ' 71 

the growth of the lactic acid bacteria. However, when a 
large amount of starter containing only lactic acid germs 
is added to the cream from such milk these organisms are 
certain to predominate. 

The best results with the starter method are secured 
when the milk is received at the creamery in a sweet 
condition and when a large amount of starter is used. 
Generally when milk is received in a sweet condition, 
especially during the summer months, it indicates that 
it has been thoroughly cooled and that the germs are 
present only in small numbers. When the cream from 
such milk is heavily inoculated with lactic acid germs by 
adding a starter, the development of the lactic fermenta- 
tion is so rapid as to either check or entirely suppress the 
action of undesirable bacteria that may be present in the 
cream. 

PART II. — the; control of the ripening process. 

In Part I an attempt was made to convey some idea 
as to our present theory and methods of cream ripening. 
We learned that the highly desirable flavor and aroma 
of butter are produced by the development of the lactic 
fermentation. In the following discussion we shall take 
up the means of controlling this fermentation and treat 
of the more mechanical side of cream ripening. This 
will include: i. The time the starter should be added to 
the cream ; 2. The amount of starter to be added ; 3. The 
ripening temperature; 4. Time in ripening; 5. Agitation 
of cream during ripening; 6. Means of controlling tem- 
perature. 

I. The value of a starter in cream ripening has already 
been made evident in the discussion of the theory of cream 
ripening. To secure the maximum effect of a starter it 
should be added to the cream vat soon after the separation 



72 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

of the milk has begun but not until the cream has reached 
a temperature of 70° F. The cream thus coming in con- 
tact with the starter as it leaves the separator insures a 
vigorous development of the starter germs, so that by the 
time the separation is completed, the starter fermentation 
is almost certain to predominate, especially when a large 
amount of starter is used. 

2. The maximum amount of starter that may be con- 
sistently used is one pound to two pounds of cream. A 
larger amount than this would be liable to result in too 
thin a cream. Experience teaches us that the maxi- 
mum richness of cream permissible in clean skimming 
under average conditions is 50%. Adding one pound of 
starter to two pounds of such cream would give us 
a- 33 1-3 % cream, the ideal richness for churning. But 
this amount of starter is rarely permissible on account 
of the poor facilities for controlling the temperature of 
the cream. 

3. Since the lactic acid bacteria develop best at a 
temperature of 90° to 98° F. it would seem desirable to 
ripen cream at these temperatures. But this is not 
practicable because of the unfavorable effect of high tem- 
peratures on the body of the cream and the butter. Good 
butter can be produced, however, under a wide range of 
ripening temperatures. The limits may be placed at 60° 
and 80°. Temperatures below 60° are too unfavorable 
for the development of the lactic acid bacteria. Any 
check upon the growth of these germs increases the 
chances for the development of other kinds of bacteria. 
But it may be added that when cream has reached an 
acidity of .4% or more, the ripening may be finished at a 
temperature between 55° and 60° with good results. In 
general practice a temperature between 60° and 70° gives 



CREAM RIPENING 73 

the best results. This means that the main portion of the 
ripening is done at this temperature. The ripening is 
always finished at temperatures lower than this. 

4. As a rule quick ripening gives better results than 
slow. The reason for this is evident. Quick ripening 
means a rapid development of the lactic fermentation and, 
therefore, a relatively slow development of other fer- 
mentations. Practical experience shows us that the 
growth of the undesirable germs is slow in proportion 
as that of the lactic is rapid. For instance, when we 
attempt to ripen cream at 55° F., a temperature unfavor- 
able for the growth of the lactic acid bacteria, a 
more or less bitter flavor is always the result. This is 
so because the bitter germs develop better at low tempera- 
tures than the lactic acid bacteria. 

The main portion of the ripening should be done in 
about six hours. After this the temperature should be 
gradually reduced to a point at which the cream will not 
overripen before churning. 

5. It is very essential in cream ripening to agitate the 
cream frequently to insure uniform ripening. When 
cream remains undisturbed for some time the fat rises 
in the same way that it does in milk, though in a less 
marked degree. The result is that the upper layers 
are richer than the lower and will sour less rapidly, since 
the action of the lactic acid germs is greater in thin than 
in rich cream. 

This uneven ripening leads to a poor bodied cream. 
Instead of being smooth and glossy, it will appear 
coarse and curdy when poured from a dipper. The im- 
portance of stirring frequently during ripening should 
therefore not be underestimated. 

6. The subject of cream cooling is a very important 



74 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

one and will be discussed under the head of cream 
ripeners. 

CREAM RIPENERS. 

During the summer months much butter of inferior 
quality is made by overripening the cream and churning 
at too high a temperature. This is due chiefly to a lack 
of proper cooling facilities. With the open cream vats 
the control of temperature is a difficult thing. P'or- 
tunately these vats have been largely replaced by the more 
modern cream ripeners. These ripeners possess two 
important advantages over the open vats, namely: first, 
they permit a more rapid cooling by agitating the cream 
while cooling ; second, they maintain a more uniform tem- 
perature because of tight fitting covers and better all 
round construction. 

There are a number of different makes of ripeners on 
the market that are giving good satisfaction. 

Since some of these ripeners are so constructed as to 
render the addition of ice to the water in them impossible, 
they can not therefore be considered complete without 
an ice water attachment. In Fig. 21 an ice water tank 
may be seen attached to the ripener. 

Tank A contains ice water which is kept circulating 
through the ripener by means of pump B. By using the 
water over and over again, only a very small quantity 
of ice is required in cooling cream to the desired tempera- 
ture. When the great cooling power of ice is once fully 
understood it is easy to see what a great amount of 
cooling a small quantity of ice will do. One pound of 
ice in melting will give out 142 times as much cold as 
one pound of water raised from 32° to 33° F. In other 



CREAM RIPENING 



75 



words, the cooling power of ice is 142 times as great as 
that of water. 

With uniced water, a low temperature is not possible. 
On warm days the ripener may be run during the greater 




Fig. 21.— Showing method of circulating ice water through ripener. 



part of the day without reducing the temperature below 
56° F., and this too when the water is pumped directly 
from the well into the ripener. It is rarely possible to 
obtain a lower temperature than this with water that has 
a temperature of 51° to 52° F. as it enters the ripener. 

When we compare the quick cooling with Iced water 
and the slow and inadequate cooling with uniced water, 
it is easily seen that the saving in fuel and wear and 
tear of machinery will more than cover the cost of the 
ice. Moreover, quick cooling has a very important ad- 
vantage in cream ripening. It permits the use of a large 
amount of starter which is not possible where good cool- 
ing facilities are not at hand. Using iced water makes 
it possible to have cream with the same degree of acidity 
365 days in the year, and it is believed that the general 



76 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

use of the improved cream ripeners and ice water attach- 
ments will result in a great improvement in both the 
quality and uniformity of butter and do away with the 
dangerous practice of adding ice directly to the cream. 

DANGER OF ADDING ICE TO CREAM. 

Adding ice to the cream is a pernicious practice, both 
because of its tendency to lower the quality of the butter 
and of the danger of infecting it with disease producing 
germs. This is so because most of the ice used is more 
or less contaminated with filth and various kinds of 
germs. Moreover, a good bodied cream cannot be 
obtained where it becomes excessively diluted with ice 
water. 

Butter makers generally realize these facts but are often 
forced into the practice of adding ice to the cream because 
proper cooling facilities are not available. One of 
the contestants in the Michigan Butter Scoring Test 
writes as follows : *'The ice we have been using comes 
from a mill pond, a very filthy hole. I did not use it 
in the cream until July when I was obliged to in order 
to get the cream cold enough. I am satisfied that is one 
reason my butter has such a poor flavor." Compare his 
scores for May and June when no ice was used in the 
cream, with those for July and August when ice was 
added. Score for May, 92^ ; score for June, 94 ; score 
for July, 87 ; score for August, 88. 

WHEN BUTTERMILK MAY BE USED AS A STARTER. 

Creameries using two ripeners and finding it difficult 
to get enough starter, will find it advantageous to ripen 
the best cream with a good starter and to use the biitter- 



CREAM RIPENING 77 

milk from this for ripening the second vat of cream; or 
in case the second vat consists of partly soured hand 
separator cream it would be best to churn this cream as 
soon as possible after the addition of the buttermilk. 

PART III. ACID TESTS FOR MILK AND CREAM. 

Buttermakers who have had years of experience and 
who rank high in the profession of buttermaking do not 
find it safe to rely upon their noses in determining the 
ripeness of cream for churning. They use in daily prac- 
tice tests by which it is possible to determine the actual 
amount of acid present. The method of using these tests 
is based upon the simplest form of titration. 

Titration. This consists in neutralizing an acid with 
an alkali in the presence of an indicator which determines 
when the point of neutrality has been reached. 

Acids and alkalies are substances that have entirely 
opposite chemical properties. The acid in milk gives it 
its sour taste, and for our purpose, illustrates very well 
what we mean by an acid. Ordinary lime may be used 
to illustrate what we mean by an alkali. 

When lime is added to sour milk the acid unites with 
the lime forming a neutral substance which is neither 
alkaline nor acid. If we keep on adding lime to the milk 
we reach a point at which all the acid has combined 
with the lime. This is called the point of neutrality. The 
moment this point is passed is made visible to the eye 
by means of the indicator, (phenolphthalein) which is 
colorless in the presence of an acid but pink in the 
presence of an alkali. One drop of alkali added to milk 
after the acid has been neutralized will turn it pink. 



78 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



In the tests used for milk and cream the alkah used 
is sodium hydroxide. This is made up of a definite 
strength so that the amount of acid can be calculated 
from the amount of alkali used. 

Kinds of Tests. There are two tests in general use 
at the present time : one devised by Prof. Manns and 

known as the Manns' Test ; 

the other devised by Prof. 

Farrington and known as Far- 

rington's Alkaline Tablet Test. 

MANNS' TEST. 

The apparatus used in this 
test is illustrated in Fig. 22. 
It consists of a 50 c.c. burrette, 
a 50 c.c. pipette, a small fun- 
nel, and a glass beaker with 
stirring rod. The alkali (not 
shown in the figure) can be 
bought ready made in gallon 
bottles and is labeled ''neutral- 
izer." This alkali or neutral- 
izer is made by dissolving 
four grams of sodium hydroxide in enough water to make 
one liter solution. The solution thus formed is called a 
one-tenth normal solution, each cubic centimeter of which 
contains .004 of a gram of sodium hydroxide which will 
neutralize .009 of a gram of lactic acid. 

Making the Test. Measure 50 c.c. of cream with the 
pipette into the beaker, then with the same pipette add 
50 c.c. of water. Now add five or six drops of indicator. 
Next fill the burrette to the zero mark with the neutralizer 




Fig. 22. —Manns' acid test appa^ 
ratus. 



CRBAM RIPENING 79 

and slowly run this from the burrette into the cream, 
shaking the beaker after each addition of alkali. With 
the first few additions of alkali the pinkish color pro- 
duced quickly disappears. But when the point of neu- 
trality approaches, the color disappears very slowly and 
the neutralizer must be added drop by drop only. The 
moment the cream remains pink indicates that the acid 
has all been neutralized. The number of cubic centimeters 
of alkali added to the cream is then noted, and from this 
the percentage of acid is calculated according to the 
following formula : 

No. c.c. alkali X .009 
Per cent acid = No. c.c. cream >< 1^^' 

Example : What is the percentage of acidity when 
30 c.c. of alkali are required to neutralize 50 c.c. of cream ? 

30 X .009 ^^^ ^^^ 
g^-^ X 100 = M%. 

From the formula it is evident that any amount of 
cream may be used for a test. But more accurate results 
are obtained by using 50 c.c. than less. Where this 
amount of cream is always used the formula may be con- 
siderably simplified. 

Thus, by dividing the numerator and denominator by 50, the 
. / No. c.c . alkali X .009 ^ \ ^ .^. 

expression ( gO X 100^ becomes (No. c.c. 

alkali X .009 X 2) or (No. c.c. alkali X .018). The acidity in 
the problem above would therefore equal 30 X .018 = M%. 



FARRINGTON's alkaline TABLEl' TEST. 

In the Farrington test the same alkali is used as in 
Manns'j but in a dry tablet form in which it is more 



80 



CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 



easily handled than in the liquid form. Each tablet con- 
tains enough alkali to neutralize .034 gram of lactic acid. 
Apparatus Used for tfie Test. This is shown in 
Fig. 23 and consists of a porcelain cup, one 17.6 c.c. 
pipette, and a 100 c.c. rubber-stoppered graduated glass 
cylinder. 



PJPETTE 




crLJNDErR. 



Fig. 23.— Farrington acid test apparatus. 



Making the Solution. The solution is made in the 
graduated cylinder by dissolving 5 tablets in enough 
water to make 97 c.c. solution. When the tablets are dis- 
solved, which takes from six to twelve hours, the solution 
should be well shaken and is then ready for use. The 
solution of the tablets may be hastened by placing the 
graduate in a reclining position as shown in the cut. " 

Making the Test. With the pipette add 17.6 c.c. of 
cream to the cup, then with the same pipette add an equal 
amount of water. Now slowly add of the tablet solution, 



CREAM RIPENING 81 

rotating the cup after each addition. As soon as a per- 
manent pink color appears, the graduate is read and the 
number of c.c. solution used will indicate the number 
of hundredths of one per cent of acid in the cream. Thus, 
if it required 50 c.c. of the tablet solution to neutralize the 
cream then the amount of acid would be .50%. From 
this it will be seen that with the Farrington test no calcu- 
lation of any kind is necessary. 

TESTING THE ACIDITY OF MILK. 

The acidity of milk may be determined in the same way 
as that of cream, except that the milk need not be diluted 
with water before adding the alkali. 

A Rapid Acid Test for Milk. Where milk is pasteur- 
ized it is often desirable to determine approximately the 
acidity of each lot as it arrives at the creamery. 
It has been found that milk that contains more than .2% 
acid cannot be satisfactorily pasteurized. Farrington and 
Woll have devised the following rapid method for testing 
the acidity of milk that is to be pasteurized : 

Prepare a tablet solution by adding two tablets for each 
ounce of water. When the tablets have dissolved, take 
the solution into the intake. Now, as each lot is 
dumped into the weigh can a sample of milk is taken 
with a No. 10 brass cartridge shell and emptied into a 
teacup. With another, or the same, No. 10 shell add a 
measure of tablet solution to the cup. Mix the alkali and 
milk by giving the contents of the cup a rotary motion. If 
the milk remains white it contains more than .2% acid; 
if it is colored, there is less than .2% acid present. 

Where the tablet solution is prepared as above care 
must be taken to secure equal quantities of milk and 
solution for the test. 

6 



82 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

pre:cautions in making acid tests. 

1. Always thoroughly mix the cream or milk before 
taking a sample for a test. 

2. Prepare the tablet solution and dilute the cream 
with water as nearly neutral as possible. Soft water is 
better than hard. 

3. Keep the tablets dry and well bottled. 

4. Keep the Manns neutralizer and the Farrington 
tablet solution carefully stoppered with a rubber stopper, 
as exposure to the air will weaken the solutions by absorb- 
ing carbonic acid. 

5. With the Farrington tablets it is best to prepare 
a new solution every day. 

6. Make the tests where there is plenty of light so 
that the first appearance of a permanent pink color can 
readily be noticed. 

RKIvATlON OF richness AND ACIDITY IN CREAM. 

In practice we find that the ripening is slower, in rich 
than in poor cream. The reason for this is that the acid 
develops in the milk serum, which really should be used 
as the basis in measuring the degree of acidity, if this 
were possible. 

In a cream testing 25% we find that more acid must 
be developed to get the desired effects in cream ripening 
than is necessary in a 35% cream. This is so because in 
the 25 % cream we have the acid distributed through 75% 
milk serum, while in the 35% cream it is distributed 
through only 65% milk serum. 

If both the above creams show an acidity of .5%, this 
means that in the poor cream the .5 pound of acid is 
distributed through 75 pounds of serum, while in the rich 



CREAM RIPENING 



83 



cream it is distributed through only 65 pounds of serum, 
hence the latter must have the greater intensity of acidity. 
This may be graphically shown as follows : 



Poor cream. 




Rich cream. 


25% fat. 




35% fat. 


7b % serum. 
.b% acid. 


65% serum. 
.5% acid. 



In the illustrations above it is seen that the acid in the 
rich cream is distributed through less space than in the 
poor, hence the degree of acidity must be higher in tb^ 
rich cream. 

We find in practice where the same results are to be 
expected from the ripening process, a 25% cream must 
show about .6% acidity, while a 35% cream, about .5%. 

In bulletin No. 24 of the Washington Experiment Sta- 
tion, Prof. Spillman gives a table showing the required 
acidity for cream of different richness. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

STARTERS. 

The value of carefully selected cultures of lactic acid 
producing bacteria in cream ripening was first demon- 
strated by Dr. Storch, of Copenhagen, a little more than 
a decade and a half ago. Since then the use of these 
cultures has spread so rapidly that few successful cream- 
eries can be found at the present time in which they are 
not used. 

Definition. Starter is the general term applied to 
cultures of lactic acid organisms, whether they have been 
selected artificially in a laboratory, or at creameries by 
picking out lots of milk that seem to contain these organ- 
isms to the exclusion of others. A good starter may be 
defined as a clean flavored batch of sour milk or sour 
skim-milk. 

The word starter derives its name from the fact that 
a starter is used to "start" or assist the development of 
the lactic fermentation in cream ripening. 

Object of Starters. Cream ordinarily contains many 
kinds of bacteria — good, bad, and indifferent — and to 
insure the predominance of the lactic acid type in the 
ripening process it is necessary to reinforce the bacteria 
of this type already existing in the cream by adding large 
quantities of them in a pure form, that is, unmixed with 
undesirable species. 

The bacterial or plant life of cream may be aptly com- 
pared with the plant life of a garden. In both we find 
plants of a desirable and undesirable character. The 

84 



STARTERS 85 

weeds of the garden correspond to the bad fermentations 
of cream. If the weeds get the start of the cultivated 
vegetables, the growth of the latter will be checked or 
suppressed. So with the bacterial fermentations of 
cream. When the lactic acid bacteria predominate, other 
fermentations will be checked or crowded out. The 
use of a liberal amount of starter nearly always insures 
a majority of good bacteria and the larger this majority 
the better the product. 

Classification of Starters. The following is a classi- 
fication of the various starters in use at the present time : 



f Natural. 



Starters. 



r Sour skim-milU ) r)P«irable 

I Sour milk ^ uesiraDie. 

I (Boston, Mass.) . . . ( ^ p„p,^^ Culture. 

Commercial 1 « ,, K-^ith t., ( 1- Boston Butter Culture 

(American)... , fai.rf^X'i^^.)] |. feS^fi|^Sl?u?e".""" 

I Elov Erricson (Mankato, Minn.). 

I Hansen's Lactic Ferment (Little Falls, N. Y.) 

L and a few others. 



NATURAL STARTERS. 

Sour Milk and Skim=milk. Natural starters are those 
obtained by allowing milk, skim-milk, or possibly cream, 
to sour in the ordinary way. 

The earlier methods of using natural starters consisted 
in selecting milk or skim-milk from the patrons who 
furnished the best milk at the creamery, and allowing this 
to sour by holding it over till the following day. While 
good milk could be selected in this way, the method of 
souring it was very unsatisfactory. On warm days the 
milk might oversour, while on cooler days it would be 



86 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

found comparatively sweet unless a good deal of atten- 
tion was given to keeping the temperature where it would 
sour in the proper length of time. This method of 
starter making is rapidly falling into disuse. 

The most satisfactory natural starters are selected and 
prepared in the following manner : Secure, say, one quart 
of milk from each of half a dozen healthy cows not far 
advanced in lactation, and fed on good feed. Before 
drawing the milk, brush the flanks and udders of the 
cows and then moisten th^m with water or, preferably, 
coat thinly with vasaline to prevent dislodgement of dust. 
Then, after rejecting the first few streams, draw the milk 
into sterilized quart jars provided with narrow necks. 
Now allow the milk to sour, uncovered, in a clean, pure 
atmosphere at a temperature between 65° and 90° F. 
When loppered pour off the top and introduce the sample 
wnth. the best flavor inta fifty pounds of sterilized skim- 
milk and ripen at a temperature at which it will sour in 
twenty-four hours (about 65° F.). 

A starter thus selected can be propagated for a month 
or more by daily inoculating newly sterilized or pasteur- 
ized milk with a small amount of the old or mother starter. 
Usually three or four pounds of the mother starter added 
to one hundred pounds of pasteurized skim-milk will sour 
it in twenty- four hours at a temperature of 65° F. Under 
certain conditions of weather this amount may possibly 
have to be modified a little, for it is well known that on 
hot sultry days milk will sour more quickly at a given 
temperature than on cooler days. The* best rule to follow 
is to use enough of the mother starter to sour the milk 
in twenty-four hours at a temperature of 65° F. 

Buttermilk and Sour Cream. If the cream has a 
•3x1 flavor, a portion of this, or the buttermilk from it, 



STARTERS 87 

may be used as a starter. But in the case of unpasteurized 
cream, even though the flavor is good, there are always 
present some undesirable germs which will multiply in 
each successive batch of cream or buttermilk used as a 
starter, so that after a week's use the flavor may actually 
be bad. Where cream is slightly off flavored and a por- 
tion of this, or the buttermilk from it, is used as a starter, 
it will readily be seen that the taint will not only be 
transmitted but will multiply in the cream from day to 
day. The use of either cream or buttermilk as a starter 
is therefore not to be recommended. 



COMMERCIAL STARTERS. 

Commercial starters may consist of a single species 
of lactic acid organisms, but usually they are made up 
of a mixture of several species. These starters are pre- 
pared in laboratories where the utmost precautions are 
taken to keep them free from undesirable germs. The 
methods by which the good bacteria are separated from 
the bad are quite complicated and of too little practical 
value to permit a discussion of them here. Suffice it to 
say that such separation is possible only with the skilled 
bacteriologist. 

Keith and Douglas each manufacture three different 
cultures which are put upon the market in liquid form, the 
liquid usually being bouillon, or beef extract, treated 
with milk sugar. The development of the germs in this 
medium is very rapid and the cultures should therefore 
not be used later than ten days after they are sent out 
from the manufacturer unless they are kept at low tem- 
peratures. The reason for this is that the rapid growth 
of the bacteria will quickly result in vast numbers of them. 



88 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

which, together with their by-products, is fatal to their 
development. 

The chief difference in the three cultures prepared by 
these men lies in the intensity of acid produced. The 
"lactic" is the most vigorous, and the "Boston" the least 
vigorous acid producing culture, while the ''duplex" 
seems to take an intermediate position. Sometimes, how- 
ever, it is difficult to distinguish between these cultures. 

Erricson's culture has only recently been placed upon 
the market but is already popular. It is sent out in the 
form of a liquid (also as a powder) which appears to con- 
sist of sterilized milk to which some sugar has been added. 

Hansen's lactic ferment is put up in the form of a 
powder which consists chiefly of sterilized milk with 
possibly slight additions of casein and starch. In this 
dry powdery medium .the germs remain in a dormant 
condition. When held a long time in this condition their 
vitality seems to become impaired. 

Preparation. Most of the commercial cultures are 
sent out in one ounce bottles which are hermetically 
sealed. The method of making starters from them is the 
same for all whether they are obtained in the liquid or 
in the dry form. 

In making the first batch of commercial starter, the 
entire contents of the bottle is put into a quart of skim- 
milk, sterilized by keeping it at a temperature of 200° F. 
for two hours, and then cooling to 80° which temperature 
should be maintained until the starter has thickened. A 
new starter is now prepared by introducing the quart of 
starter into fifty pounds of skim-milk, pasteurized by 
keeping it at a temperature of 170° to 185° for thirty 
minutes and then cooling to 65° F. All subsequent starters 
are prepared in the same way except that the amount of 



STARTERS 89 

mother starter for inoculation must be reduced a little 
for a few days because the germs become more vigorous 
after they have propagated several days. 

In preparing the first starter from a bottle of culture 
it is necessary to have the skim-milk sterile. For if any 
spores should remain, the slow souring would give them 
a chance to develop which might spoil the starter. More- 
over, the cooked flavor imparted by the prolonged heating 
at high temperatures does not matter in the first starter 
as this should never be used to ripen cream. The first 
and second starters prepared from a new culture seldom 
have the good flavor produced in subsequent starters. 
The cause of this in all probability is the inactive condi- 
tion of the germs and the peculiar flavor of the medium 
in which they are sent out. 

In the starters prepared later the destruction of the 
spores is not so essential as the lactic acid germs are then 
in a vigorously growing condition which renders the 
spores practically harmless. At any rate the harm done by 
them would be less than that caused by the sterilizing 
process. When milk is pasteurized at 170° to 185° F. 
for thirty minutes the vegetative germs are destroyed and 
but little cooked flavor is noticeable. 

NATURAL VERSUS COMMERCIAL STARTERS. 
Experimental tests have shown that equally good results 
can be secured with commerical and natural starters. It 
is believed, however, that the average butter maker can 
get the best results with commercial starters. Too few 
are good judges of milk and for this reason are not 
always capable of selecting the best for natural starters. 
Standard commercial cultures can be relied upon as giv- 
ing uniformly good results. 



90 CRUAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

From what has been said of the methods of preparing 
starters it must have been noticed that they are essentially 
the same for both the natural and the commercial, the 
chief difference being in the original ferment, which in 
the case of the natural starter consists of a quart of 
selected milk allowed to sour naturally, while in the com- 
mercial it consists of a bottle of culture prepared in a 
laboratory. 

USING A STARTKR EVERY OTHER DAY. 

During the winter when milk is received every other 
day at creameries the ordinary method of preparing 
starters daily is, of course, out of question. There are 
two ways, however, in which starters may be carried 
along during this time. One way is to keep the starter 
an extra twenty-four hours by holding it at a temperature 
below 50° after it has soured. The other and more 
satisfactory way is to prepare a small starter on the day 
the milk is separated ; and, in addition, to pasteurize, but 
not inoculate, the amount of skim-milk needed for the 
regular starter. This milk is repasteurized the following 
day and then inoculated from the small starter prepared 
the day previous. 

The object in repasteurizing the milk is to destroy the 
spores that have developed into the vegetative state. 

HOW TO SELECT MILK I^OR STARTERS. 

It is poor practice to select starter milk promiscuously. 
The sweetest and best flavored milk should be obtained 
for the preparation of starters. Where possible the best 
plan is to select the morning's milk of one of the earliest 
patrons at the creamery and separate this first. In case 



STARTERS 91 

the best milk is received toward the middle or close of the 
run, it should be carried into the creamery and separated 
by itself so as to secure the skim-milk without contamina- 
tion from other milk of inferior flavor. 

It must not be supposed that any milk may be made into 
a first-class starter by thorough pasteurization and inocu- 
lation with good cultures of bacteria. The best starters 
are possible only with the best milk. 

whoi^e: milk starters. 

Where whole milk is used for making starters the cream 
should always be skimmed off before using the starter. 
Indeed it is good practice to skim off the top of any 
starter before using as the surface is liable to become 
contaminated from exposure to the air. 

ACIDITY OF STARTe:RS. 

It has already been stated that a starter is at its best 
immediately after it has thickened when it usually shows 
about .7% acid. It must not be supposed, however, that 
all starters are at their best when they show this amount 
of acid, because different starters thicken with different 
degrees of acidity. Nor must it be supposed that a starter 
that tends to sour very quickly is better than one that 
sours slowly. Marshall, of the Michigan Agricultural 
College, has recently found that when certain alkali pro- 
ducing bacteria are associated with the lactic acid organ- 
isms the milk sours more quickly than when the alkali 
bacteria are not present. These alkali producing bacteria, 
while they hasten the souring, produce an undesirable 
flavor. This probably explains why starters that have a 
tendency to sour very rapidly are often inferior to those 



92 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

that sour less rapidly. Usually, too, starters after they 
have been propagated for some time,ODecome intensely 
acid producing, which is probably due to contamination 
with the peculiar alkali producing bacteria. 

RENEWAI, OF STARTERS. 

Under average creamery conditions it is policy to renew 
the starter at least once a month by purchasing a new 
bottle of culture. It will be found that after the starter 
has been propagated for two or three weeks bad germs 
will begin to manifest themselves as a result of imperfect 
pasteurization, contamination from the air, or from over- 
ripening, so that its original good flavor may be seriously 
impaired at the end of one month's use. It is only where 
the utmost precautions are taken in pasteurizing the milk 
and ripening the starter, that it is possible to propagate 
a starter for many weeks and still maintain a good flavor. 

vai^ue: of carrying severai^ starters. 

There is always some possibility of losing a starter by 
overripening or by accidental contamination which would 
deprive the butter maker of the use of a starter for several 
days. To insure against this, butter makers should practice 
carrying a few extra ones in quart cans. This has the 
additional advantage of offering some choice. The best 
is, of course, always selected for regular use. The milk 
for the small starters should be sterilized rather than 
pasteurized. 

This practice of carrying several starters is strongly 
recommended. 



STARTERS 93 

STARTER CANS. 

The most difficult thing in connection with starters is 
to get them just ripe when ready to use. A starter has its 
best flavor right after it has thickened. When it begins 




Fig. 24.— Starter can. 



to show whey it indicates that the ripening has gone too 
far and should not then be used in the cream. The strong 
and curdy flavors found in butter are often directly attrib- 
utable to overripened starters. 

It becomes evident that to secure the proper acidity 
in the starter from day to day cans or vats must be used in 
which it is possible to obtain perfect control of tempera- 
ture. The improved modern starter can, shown in Fig. 
24, answers the purpose very satisfactorily. This can is 



94 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

handy and provided with a double jacket between which 
steam, hot water, cold water, or ice water may be circu- 
lated as the case may demand. It is also provided with an 
agitator which is operated by power. 



POINTERS ON STARTERS. 

1. Starters give best results when added to cream 
immediately after they have thickened. 

2. An overripe starter produces somewhat the same 
effect in butter as overripened cream. Curdy flavors are 
usually the result of such starters. 

3. To prevent overripening, starter cans or starter 
vats must be used in which the temperature can be kept 
under perfect control. 

4. Skim-milk furnishes the best medium for starters, 
since this has undergone the cleansing action of the sepa- 
rator and is free from fat, which hampers the growth of 
lactic acid bacteria. 

5. Agitate and uncover the m.ilk while heating to in- 
sure a uniform temperature and to permit undesirable 
odors to escape. 

6. Always dip the thermometer in hot water before 
inserting it in pasteurized milk. The pasteurizing process 
becomes a delusion when dirty thermometers are used for 
observing temperatures. 

7. Always use a sterilized can for making a new 
starter. 

8. Keep the starter can loosely covered after the mill: 
has been heated to prevent germs from the air gettir.j 
into it. 

9. Stir the starter occasionally the first five hours after 
inoculation to insure uniform ripening. 



STARTERS 95 

• lo. Never disturb the starter after it has begun thick- 
ening until ready to use. 

11. When a new bottle of commercial culture is used, 
the first two starters from it should not be used in cream 
as the flavor is usually inferior on account of the slow 
growth of the bacteria and the undesirable flavor imparted 
by the medium in which the cultures are sent out. A 
commercial starter is usually at its best after it has been 
propagated a week. 

12. Always sterilize the neck of a new bottle of culture 
before emptying .the contents into sterilized skim-milk. 



CHAPTER IX. 



CHURNING. 



Under the physical properties of butter fat it was 
mentioned that this fat existed in milk in the form 
of extremely minute globules, numbering about 100,000,- 
000 per drop of milk. In rich cream this number is in- 
creased at least a dozen times owing to the concentration 
of the fat globules during the separation of the milk. 

So long as milk and cream remain undisturbed, the fat 
remains in this finely divided state without any tendency 
whatever to flow together. This tendency of the globules 
to remain separate was formerly ascribed to the supposed 
presence of a membrane around each globule. Later re- 
searches, however, have proven the falsity of this theory 
and we know now that this condition of the fat is due 
to the surface tension of the globules and to the dense 
layer of casein that surrounds them. 

Any disturbance great enough to cause the globules to 
break through this caseous layer and overcome their sur- 
face tension will cause them to unite or coalesce, a process 
which we call churning. In the churning of cream this 
process of coalescing continues until the fat globules 
have united into masses visible in the churn as butter 
granules. 

CONDITIONS THAT INFLUENCE CHURNING. 

There are a number of conditions that have an impor- 
tant bearing upon the process of churning. These may 
be enumerated as follows: 

96 



CHURNING 97 

1. Temperature. 

2. Character of butter fat. 

3. Acidity of cream. 

4. Richness of cream. 

5. Amount of cream in churn. 

6. Speed of churn. 

7. Abnormal fermentations, 

1. Temperature. To have the microscopic globules 
unite in churning they must have a certain degree of soft- 
ness or fluidity which is greater the higher the tempera- 
ture. Hence the higher the temperature, within certain 
limits, the quicker the churning. To secure the best results 
the temperature must be such as to churn the cream in 
from thirty to forty-five minutes. This is brought about 
in different creams at quite different temperatures. 

The temperature at which cream must be churned is 
determined primarily by the character of the butter fat 
and partly also by the acidity and richness of the cream. 

Rule for Churning Temperature. A good rule to fol- 
low with regard to temperature is this : When the cream 
enters the churn with a richness of 30 to 35 per cent 
and an acidity of .5 to .6 per cent, the temperature should 
be such that the cream will churn in from thirty to forty- 
five minutes. This will insure an exhaustive churning 
and leave the butter in a condition in which it can be 
handled without injuring its texture. Moreover, the but- 
termilk can then be easily removed so that when a plug 
is taken with a trier the day after it is churned the brine 
on it will be perfectly clear. 

2. Character of Butter Fat. The fat globules in 
cream from different sources and at different times have 
the proper fluidity to unite at quite different temperatures. 

7 



98 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

This is so because of the differences in the relative amount 
of "soft" and "hard" fats of which butter fat is composed. 
When the hard fats largely predominate the butter fat 
will of course have a high melting point. Such fat may be 
quite hard at a temperature of 60° while a butter fat 
of a low melting point would be comparatively soft at 
this temperature. For a study of the conditions that 
influence the hardness of butter fat the reader is referred 
to the discussion of the "insoluble fats" treated in the 
chapter on milk. 

3. Acidity of Cream. This has a marked influence on 
the churning process. Sour or ripened cream churns with 
much greater ease than sweet cream because the acid 
renders it less viscous. The ease with which the fat 
globules travel in cream becomes greater the less the 
viscosity. Ripe cream will therefore always churn more 
quickly than sweet cream. Ripe cream also permits of a 
higher churning temperature than sweet which is of great 
practical importance where it is difficult to secure low 
churning temperatures. 

4. Richness of Cream. It may naturally be inferred 
that the closer the fat globules are together the more, 
quickly they will unite with the same amount of concus- 
sion. In rich cream the globules are very close together 
which renders it more easily churnable than thin cream. 
The former can therefore be churned in the same length 
of time at a lower temperature than the latter. 

The ideal richness lies between 30% and 35%. A 
cream much richer than this will stick to the sides of the 
churn which reduces the amount of concussion. The addi- 
tion of water to the churn will overcome this stickiness 
and cause the butter to come in a reasonable length of 



CHURNING 99 

time. It is better, however, to avoid an excessive richness 
when an exhaustive churning is to be expected. 

5. Amount of Cream in Churn. The best and quick- 
est churning is secured when the churn is one-third full. 
With more or less cream than this the amount of concus- 
sion is reduced and the length of time in churning cor- 
respondingly increased. 

6. Speed of Churn. The speed of the churn should 
be such as to produce the greatest possible agitation or 
concussion of the cream. Too high or too low a speed 
reduces the amount of concussion. The proper speed for 
each particular churn must be determined by experiment. 

7. Abnormal Fermentations. The slimy or ropy fer- 
mentation sometimes causes trouble in churning by ren- 
dering the cream excessively viscous. Cream from single 
herds may become so viscous as to render churning im- 
possible. At creameries where milk is received from many 
herds very little trouble is experienced from these fer- 
mentations. 

CHURNS. 

A churn is a machine in which the cream is made 
to slide or drop, or is in some way agitated to bring about 
the union of the fat globules, which changes the liquid fat 
into a solid. For many years the factory churns had 
assumed the form of a box or barrel free from any inside 
fixtures. Such churns were revolved by power and did 
very satisfactory work. But it was necessary to transfer 
the butter, after it was churned, to a worker upon which 
it was worked. 

This transfer from one piece of apparatus to another 
was obviated by the invention of ''combined" churns and 



100 



CREAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 




workers (Figs. 25, 26, 29) placed upon the market a little 
more than a decade ago. These are provided with 
rollers inside, which remain stationary during churning, 
but can be made to revolve when it is desired to work 
th^ butter. 



CHURNING 



101 



The combined churns have to a great extent replaced 
the old box and barrel styles because of the many advan- 
tages they possess over the latter. The principal advan- 
tages may be stated as follows : 




Fig. 26. — Disbrow combined churn and butter worker. 

1. They occupy less space. 

2. Require less belting and fewer pulleys. 

3. The churn can be kept closed while working which 
keeps the warm air and flies out during the summer. 

4. The butter can be made with considerably less labor. 
A few disadvantages might be mentioned such as the 

greater original cost and the greater difficulty of cleaning 
and salting. But with proper care the butter may be 
evenly salted and the churns kept clean. 



CHURNING 0PE;RATI0NS. 

Preparing the Churn. Before adding the cream, the 
churn should be scalded with hot water and then 
thoroughly rinsed with cold water. This will "freshen" 



102 CRHAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

the churn and fill the pores of the wood with water so 
that the cream and butter will not stick. 

Straining Cream. All cream should be carefully 
strained into the churn. This removes the possibility of 
white specks in butter which usually consist of curd or 
dried particles of cream. 

Adding the Co^or. The amount of color to be added 
depends upon the kind of cream, the season of the year, 
and the market demands. 

Jersey or Guernsey cream requires much less color 
than Holstein because it contains more natural color. 

During the summer when the cows are feeding on 
pastures the amount of color needed may be less than 
half that required in the winter when the cows are feed- 
ing on dry feed. 

Different markets demand different shades of color. 
The butter must therefore be colored to suit the market 
to which it is shipped. 

In the winter time about one ounce of color is required 
per one hundred pounds of butter. During the summer 
less than one-half ounce is usually sufficient. 

In case the color is not added to the cream (through an 
oversight) it may be added to the butter at the time of 
working by thoroughly mixing it with the salt. When the 
colored salt has been evenly distributed through the butter 
the color will also be uniform throughout. 

Kinds of Color. There are two classes of butter color 
found upon the market. One is a vegetable color having 
its origin in the annatta and other plants, the other is a 
mineral color, a product of coal tar. Both are entirely 
satisfactory so far as they impart to butter a desirable 
color. But from a sanitary standpoint the vegetable color 



CHURNING 103 • 

seems to be preferred and this is the color now used in 
creameries. 

Gas in Churn. During the first five minutes of churn- 
ing the vent of the churn should be opened occasionally 
to relieve the pressure developed inside. This pressure 
according to Babcock "is chiefly due to the air within 
becoming saturated with moisture and not to gas set free 
from the cream." 

Size of Granules. Butter should be churned until the 
granules are about half the size of a pea. When larger 
than this it is more difficult to remove the buttermilk and 
distribute the salt. When smaller, some of the fine grains 
are liable to pass out with the buttermilk, and the per- 
centage of water in the butter is reduced. When the 
granules have reached the right size, cold water should 
be added to the churn to cause the butter to float. Salt 
will answer the same purpose. The churn is now given 
two or three revolutions and the buttermilk drawn off. 

Washing Butter. One washing in which as much 
water is used as there was cream is usually sufficient. 
When butter churns very soft two washings may be 
advantageous. Too much washing is dangerous, how- 
ever, as it removes the delicate flavor of the butter. 

Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the importance 
of using clean, pure water for washing. Experiments 
conducted at various experiment stations have shown 
that impure water seriously affects the flavor of butter. 
When the water is not perfectly pure it should be filtered 
or pasteurized. 

SALTING. 

It is needless to say that nothing but the best grades 
of salt should be used in butter. This means salt readily 



104 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

soluble in water and free from impurities. If there is 
much foreign matter in salt, it will leave a turbid appear- 
ance and a slight sediment when dissolved in a tumbler 
of clear water. 

Rate of Salt. The rate at which butter should be 
salted, other conditions the same, is dependent upon 
market demands. Some markets like Boston require much 
salt in butter while some buyers in the New York market 
require scarcely any. The butter maker must cater to the 
markets with regard to the amount of salt to use as he 
does with regard to color. 

The rate of salt used does not necessarily determine 
the amount contained in butter. For instance it is per- 
fectly possible under certain conditions to get a higher 
percentage of salt in butter by salting at the rate of one 
ounce per pound than is possible under other conditions 
by salting at the rate of one and a half ounces. This 
means that under some conditions of salting more salt is 
lost than under others. 

The amount of salt retained in butter is dependent upon : 

1. Amount of drainage before salting. 

2. Fineness of butter granules. 

3. Amount of butter in churn. 

1. When the butter is salted before the wash water 
has had time to drain away, any extra amount of water 
remaining will wash out an extra amount of salt. It is 
good practice, however, to use a little extra salt and 
drain less before adding it as the salt will dissolve better 
under these conditions. 

2. Small butter granules require more salt than large 
ones. The reason for this may be stated as follows : The 
surface of every butter granule is covered with a thin 



CHURNING 105 

film of water, and since the total surface of a pound of 
small granules is greater than that of a pound of larger 
ones, the amount of water retained on them is greater. 
Small granules have therefore the same effect as insuffi- 
cient drainage, namely, washing out more salt. 

3. Relatively less salt will stick to the churn in large 
churnings than in small, consequently less will be lost. 

Standard Rate. The average amount of salt used in 
butter made in the combined churns comes close to one 
and a half ounces per pound of butter. But the rate de- 
manded by different commission men may vary from no 
salt to two and a half ounces per pound of butter. 

With the combined churns great care must be exercised 
to get the salt evenly distributed from one end of the 
churn to the other as it can not redistribute itself in the 
working. 

Brine Salting. This consists in dissolving the salt in 
water and adding it tO' the butter in the form of a brine. 
This will usually insure an even distribution with less 
working-since the salt is already dissolved. Where butter 
containing a high percentage of salt is demanded the 
method of brine salting is not practical, because it limits 
the amount that can be incorporated in butter. 

Where there is difficulty in securing an even distribu- 
tion of the salt without excessive working, an oversatu- 
rated brine may be used to advantage. Salt added to 
butter in this form very quickly dissolves and a butter 
with any degree of salt is possible. 

But it is believed that where butter is drained little and 
a somewhat higher rate of salt is used, dry salting will 
never require overworking and will insure greater uni- 
formity than is possible with brine salting. 

Object of Salting. Salt adds flavor to butter and 



106 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

materially increases its keeping quality. Very high salt- 
ing, however, has a tendency to detract from the fine 
delicate aroma of butter while at the same time it tends 
to cover up slight defects in the flavor. As a rule a butter 
maker will find it to his advantage to be able to salt his 
butter rather high. 

Salt an Absorbent. Salt very readily absorbs odors 
and must therefore be kept in clean, dry places where the 
air is pure. Too frequently it is stored in musty, damp 
store rooms where it will not only lump, but become 
impregnated with bad odors which seriously impair the 
quality of the butter. 

WORKING BUTTe:R. 

The chief object in working butter is to evenly incor- 
porate the salt. Working also assists in expelling 
moisture. 

After the wash water has sufficiently drained away, the 
salt is carefully distributed over the butter and the churn 
revolved a few times with the rollers stationary. This 
will aid in mixing the salt and butter. The rollers are 
then set in gear and the butter worked until the salt has 
been evenly distributed. To work butter twice reduces 
the water content. 

How Much to Work. Butter is worked enough when 
the salt has been evenly distributed. Just when this point 
has been reached can not always be told from the appear- 
ance of the butter immediately after working. But after 
four or six hours standing the appearance of white 
streaks or mottles indicates that the butter has not been 
sufficiently worked. The rule to follow is to work the 
butter just enough to prevent the appearance of mottles 



CHURNING 107 

after standing about six hours. Just how much working 
this requires every butter maker must determine for him- 
self, by experiment, for the reason that there are a number 
of conditions that influence the length of time that butter 
needs to be worked in a combined churn. These condi- 
tions are : 

1. Amount of butter in the churn. 

2. Temperature of the butter. 

3. Time between workings. 

4. Size of granules. 

5. Solubility of salt. 

1. When there is a moderately large amount of butter 
in the churn the working can be accomplished with fewer 
revolutions than with a small amount. Satisfactory work- 
ing can not be secured, however, when the capacity of the 
churn is overtaxed. 

2. Hard, cold butter is difficult to work because the 
particles will not knead together properly. 

3. A moderately long time between workings allows 
the salt -to dissolve and diffuse through the butter and 
hence reduces the amount of working. 

4. Coarse or overchurned butter needs a great deal 
of working because of the greater difficulty of distribu- 
ting the salt. 

5. A salt that does not readily dissolve requires exces- 
sive working and is therefore productive of overworked 
butter. With such salt the brine method of salting is 
undoubtedly preferable. 



108 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

DIFFICULT CHURNING. 

The causes of trouble in churning may be enumerated 
as follows: (i) thin cream, (2) low temperature, (3) 
sweet cream, (4) high viscosity of cream, (5) churn too 
full, (6) too high or too low speed of churn, (7) colos- 
trum milk, (8) advanced period of lactation, and (9) ab- 
normally rich cream. 

Foaming. This is usually due to churning a thin 
cream at too low a temperature, or to a high viscosity of 
the cream. When caused by these conditions foaming 
can usually be overcome by adding warm water to the 
churn. Foaming may also be caused by having the churn 
too full, in which case the cream should be divided and 
two churnings made instead of one. 

CLEANING CHURNS. 

After the butter has been removed, the churn should be 
washed, first with moderately hot water, next with boiling 
hot water containing a little alkali, and finally with hot 
water. If the final rinsing is done with cold water the 
churn dries too slowly, which is apt to give it a musty 
smell. 

This daily washing should be supplemented once a week 
with a washing with lime water, which is prepared as 
follows: Gradually slake half a bushel of freshly burned 
lime by adding water to it at short intervals until about 
150 pounds of water has been added. Stir the mixture 
once every half hour for several hours, after which allow 
it to remain undisturbed for about ten hours. This 
permits the undissolved material to settle. The clear 
liquid is now poured off and added to the churn, which is 



CHURNING 109 

slowly revolved for at least half an hour so that the lime 
water may thoroughly penetrate the pores of the wood. 

Nothing is equal to the cleansing action of well pre- 
pared lime water and its frequent use will prevent the 
peculiar churn odor that is bound to develop in churns 
not so treated. 

The outside of the churn should be thoroughly cleaned 
with moderately hot water containing a small amount of 
alkali. 

Churning Cream Immediately After Adding the 
Starter. Where much hand separator cream is handled, 
it is usually received with varying amounts of acid, rang- 
ing in some cases from 0.15% to 0.8%. When the 
average acidity of the cream is such that when treated 
with a large amount of starter the mixture will show 
0.5% acid or more, the cream should be churned as soon 
as the proper churning temperature can be secured. If, 
for example, the vat of cream shows 0.4% acid and the 
starter 0.7%, then one part of starter to two parts of 
cream would give an average acidity of 0.5%, the right 
amount for churning cream of moderate richness. 

Pumping Cream into the Churn. Cream may be 
forced into the churn either by means of air pumps, 
sanitary milk and cream pumps, or with pumps working 
on the principle of an ordinary well pump. 

The air pumps require air-tight cream ripeners for 
their successful operation. The air is pumped into the 
ripener to create sufficient pressure to force the cream 
into the churn. Forcing air into the ripener has the 
advantage of permitting the cream to be conducted to 
the churn through an open spout. 

Pumps worked with a handle have the advantage of 



110 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



enabling the buttermaker to put his cream into the churn 
in the morning before there is sufficient steam pressure to 
work pumps with the engine. 

Fig. 27 shows a very satisfactory cream pump which 




Fig. 27.— Cream pump. 

can be made by any tinner. It simply consists of a heavy 
tin cylinder four inches in diameter which is provided with 
two brass valves having two inch openings. This pump is 
attached to the cream ripener and the cream pumped by 
hand into the churn through an open spout. Both valves 
can be removed so that there is not the slightest difficulty 
in cleaning the pump. Such a pump will readily pump 25 
gallons of cream per minute. 



CHAPTER X. 

PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER. 

Butter is usually in the best condition for packing 
immediately after it has been worked. It can then be 
packed solidly into the packages without the vigorous 
ramming necessary when the butter becomes too cold. 
When allowed to stand in the churn some time after work- 
ing during the warm summer days, the butter will usually 
get too soft for satisfactory packing. 

There is a great variety of packages in which butter 
may be packed for the markets. These may be con- 
veniently divided into two groups: (i) those used for 
home trade, and (2) those designed for export trade. 

Home Trade Packages. The bulk of the butter for 
home trade is packed in ash and spruce tubs, the former 
holding 20, 30, and 60 pounds, while the latter are made 
in 10, 20, 30, and 50 pound sizes. 

Before adding the butter, the tubs must be thoroughly 
scrubbed inside and outside, the hoops carefully set, and 
then soaked in hot water for about half an hour. After 
this they are steamed for three minutes and then allowed 
to soak in cold water not less than four hours. The sides 
and bottom of the tubs are next lined with parchment 
paper which has been soaked in strong brine for twenty- 
four hours. See "paraffining tubs," page 114. 

The wet liners are easily placed in the tubs by allowing 
them to project an inch and turning this over the edge. 

The tubs are now weighed and the butter packed into 

111 



112 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

them directly from the churn, adding about five pounds 
at a time and firmly packing it with a wooden packer made 
for this purpose. The butter should be packed solid so 
that when stripped of its package on the retailer's counter 
no open spaces will appear in it. 

When ash tubs are used they are packed brim full 
and trimmed off level with the tub by running a string 
across the top. The tubs are then weighed and the weights 
marked on the outside, allowing not less than half 
a pound for shrinkage for a sixty pound tub. A cheese 
cloth circle is next placed over the top and an oversatu- 
rated brine is pasted upon this. After careful cleaning 
place the covers on the tubs and fasten them with not 
less than three butter tub fasteners. 

With spruce tubs the method of packing is the same 
with the exception that most markets require an even 
number of pounds in a tub, as 30 or 50 pounds. The tubs 
are, therefore, trimmed down till the required weight, plus 
half a pound for shrinkage, is reached. Some markets 
do not require the spruce tubs to be lined but it is always 
better to do so. 

Prints. Considerable quantities of butter made in 
creameries are put up in one pound oblong blocks called 
prints. Where many of these prints are made a printer 
like that shown in Fig. 28 is most serviceable. This 
makes twenty-five prints at a time. 

The prints are carefully wrapped in parchment paper 
which has been soaked in strong brine for t%enty-four 
hours, and then packed in cheap wood boxes which 
usually hold. about fifty of them. These boxes should be 
held not less than one day in a refrigerator before they 
are shipped. Print butter is growing in popularity. 

There are various other packages in which butter is 



PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER 



113 



packed, such as five pound crocks, gem fibre paper boxes 
lined with parchment and holding 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10 
pounds, and the wooden bail boxes holding from 5 to 10 
pounds. Most of these packages are used for local trade. 




Fig. 28.— Butter printer. 



Foreign Trade Packages. For export trade butter is 
preferably packed in cubical spruce boxes lined with 
paraffin and holding 56 pounds. These boxes are pre- 
pared by rinsing them with cold brine and then lining 
with parchment paper (double thickness at top and 
bottom) which has been soaked in brine. The boxes are 
now weighed and carefully packed, after which they are 
trimmed down to a weight of 57 pounds, which allows one 
pound for shrinkage. Finish the packing by placing a 



114 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 




Fig. 39.— Simplex churn. 



double thickness of parchment paper over the top and upon 
this oversaturated brine. 

Butter shipped to tropical countries is packed in tin 
cans which are hermetically sealed. 

Paraffining Butter Packages. During recent years 
buttermakers and butter dealers have suffered consider- 
able losses from moldy butter caused by the growth of 
mold on the liners and on the inside of the tubs. Rogers 
of the United States Department of Agriculture has shown 
that this trouble can be prevented with certainty by coat- 
ing the inside of the tub with a layer of paraffin. He 
says: ''With paraffining not only are the molds and 
their spores already on the tub prevented from growing, 
but the wood is covered with a surface from which molds 



PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER 115 

can not get nourishment. The wood is made impervious 
to water, and the space betw^een the tub and the Hner 
remains filled. with water, so that the molds which may 
be on the liner can not get the supply of air necessary 
to their grow^th." He has also shown that loss from 
shrinkage is largely prevented in this way. 

Testimonials from buttermakers indicate that the prac- 
tice of paraffining tubs is giving good satisfaction and 
many have already adopted it as a permanent feature in 
creamery work. 

To secure the best results from the paraffin, it should 
be applied at a temperature of about 240° F., immediately 
after steaming the tub. The steaming may or may not 
be preceded by soaking; under present conditions, how- 
ever, soaking is recommended, if for no other reason than 
to give tubs their full weight. 'Butter dealers are 
accustomed to handle soaked tubs and where they are 
not soaked, the creamery is liable to lose an amount of 
butter equal to the difference between the weights of the 
soaked and unsoaked tubs. 

Special machines are now upon the market for paraf- 
fining tubs. The paraffin may, however, be applied by 
pouring the same into the tub and rotating the latter until 
it is entirely coated. A brush may also be used for this 
purpose. Those who contemplate paraffining should in- 
vestigate the merits of the machines now upon the market. 

Printing Cold Butter. Until, recently the common 
practice has been to print butter directly from the churn 
by using printers of the style shown in Fig 28. With 
the advent of the "cold" butter printers or cutters, much 
butter is being printed outside the creameries, and the 
latter are also adopting the practice of cooling the butter 
before printing. Cold butter makes better looking prints, 



116 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

injures the butter less, causes less water to be lost, facili- 
tates the wrapping, and makes it easier to pack the butter. 
The butter is preferably packed directly from the churn 
into square boxes of a size to fit the printer. Where butter 
is printed from tubs, there is too much butter left in 
irregular pieces, which are hard to repack and must be 
disposed of in bulk. 

marke:ting butter. 

The producer of any commodity is always confronted 
with the problem of finding the best markets for his 
product. Indeed his success is measured more or less by 
his ability in handling this end of the business. 

Buttermakers lose thousands and thousands of dollars 
every year because they do not fully understand how to 
manage the sale of their product. They fall into the 
clutches of men without credit or credentials who offer 
big prices but no returns. » Swindlers are always on the 
lookout for victims and every year many buttermakers 
are entrapped by them. To the one who is just beginning 
to seek a market for his butter the following course of 
procedure is recommended. 

1. Find the names of three or more leading reputable 
butter firms in the leading butter markets by inquiring of 
men from whom trustworthy information may be ex- 
pected. 

2. Divide a day's standard make among these butter 
firms and instruct each to send you statement as to the 
price they can give you net (f. o. b.) at your station for 
regular shipments, the price to be based on quotations of 
some leading market. Inform them further that you are 
ready and willing to comply with their demands as to 
color, package, and salt, in future shipments. 



PACKING AND MARKETING BUTTER 117 

3. Ship your butter to the firm that offers you the best 
price, but do not deal with this firm exclusively. A tub 
should occasionally be sent to a new and reliable firm 
with a view to securing better prices. 

4. Remember, however, that it requires time to estab- 
lish a good trade for butter. Frequent changes from one 
firm to another are therefore undesirable. 

5. Do not sell butter on commission, but ask for prices 
f. o. b. your station, based on some market quotation like 
New York, Chicago or Elgin. 

6. Demand that payment shall be made for each ship- 
ment of butter within two weeks after it is sent out. 

7. Never send a firm a third shipment until the first 
has been paid for. 

8. Butter that is not up to the standard should be 
marked and the firm properly instructed regarding its 
disposition. An attempt to crowd in an inferior ship- 
ment may cost you your regular trade. 

9. Do not feel hurt when criticisms come regarding 
defects in your butter but seek to overcome them. 

10. Always allow one-half pound of butter for shrink- 
age on fifty and sixty pound tubs. If this allowance proves 
inadequate it indicates that the tubs have not been properly 
soaked or that the "house" is cutting you on weights. 

11. Never contract butter for more than a year at a 
time. 

How to Sell to Commission Houses. A common 
mistake in marketing butter is to sell it at prices based 
upon the score of the butter. This places the butter- 
maker at the mercy of the commission man who may, or 
may not, give an honest score. If he is not strictly 
honest he may easily place butter that would 
naturally grade as extras in the class of firsts, and butter 



118 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

that would naturally grade as firsts in the class of seconds. 

One of the best methods of selling butter to commis- 
sion houses is as follows : Furnish the buyer enough 
samples of butter to give him a good idea as to the aver- 
age quality of the butter produced by the creamery. An 
agreement can then be made as to the price the creamery 
shall receive for regular shipments, the price to be based 
upon some standard market quotation. If, for example, 
the buyer agrees that the quality of the butter merits one- 
half cent above Elgin, and the seller is satisfied with this 
price, future shipments shall be paid for at the rate of 
one-half cent above Elgin until such time as either party 
may become dissatisfied with the original agreement. If 
the butter maker feels that he is receiving a good price 
for his butter, he will do his best to maintain the standard 
of his product. 

Selling to Retailers and Wholesalers. Wherever pos- 
sible creameries should try to sell their butter direct to 
retailers and wholesale houses and in this way save the 
commission man's profits. This method of marketing, of 
course, necessitates visiting retailers and wholesalers in 
nearby cities, but this trouble will be more than compen- 
sated for by bringing the buttermaker in closer touch 
with the markets and with general market requirements. 

Branding Butter. As with hundreds of other com- 
modities, the branding of good butter is absolutely essen- 
tial in creating a strong demand for it. A high quality 
butter without a distinguishing mark is bound to sell at 
a disadvantage because consumers are not willing to pay 
high prices for products about whose quality they have 
no positive assurance. The brand advertises the butter 
and increases the demand for it, and an increased demand 
is always followed by better prices. 



CHAPTER XI. 



CALCULATING DIVIDE:NDS. 



I. Whole Milk. It is customary to pay for milk at 
creameries once a month. Such payment is called the 
monthly dividend. The method by which this dividend 
is calculated depends, of course, on the basis upon which 
the milk is bought. Fortunately the large majority of 
creameries now pay for it according to the butter fat con- 
tent. Milk so paid for is spoken of as being bought by the 
*'Babcock test" or on the "fat basis." Since it makes 
butter in proportion to the amount of fat it contains, the 
Babcock test or fat basis is manifestly the only just way 
of buying milk at creameries. This method will be dis- 
cussed in detail. 

CALCULATING DIVIDENDS ON A FAT BASIS. 

The different steps in this calculation are indicated as 
follows : 

1. Find the total pounds of milk delivered by each 
patron for the month. 

2. Find each patron's average percentage of butter fat 
for the month by averaging up the number of tests. 

3. Multiply each patron's total milk for the month by 
the average percentage of butter fat it contains, the prod- 
uct will be the total pounds of butter fat delivered. 

4. Add together all butter fat delivered by the patrons 
for the month, the sum will be the total butter fat. 

5. Determine the total gross receipts for the month 
by multiplying each sale of butter by the price received 

119 



120 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

per pound ; the sum obtained by adding all the sales will 
be the total gross receipts. 

6. Calculate the amount charged to cover running ex- 
penses by multiplying the total pounds of butter by the 
price charged for making. 

7. Subtract the sum charged to cover running ex- 
penses from the total gross receipts, the difference will 
be the net money due patrons. 

8. The total net money divided by the total pounds 
of butter fat will give the average price per pound of 
butter fat. 

9. Each patron's share of the monthly dividend is now 
found by multiplying his total butter fat by the average 
price per pound of butter fat obtained in 8. 

To make the above steps perfectly clear let us calculate 
a monthly dividend at a creamery in which A, B, and C 
are the patrons. 

Milk Pounds. 
Date. ABC 

1. August 1 260 150 312 

August 2 255 151 300 

August 3 261 145 305 

August 31 240 162 301 

Total 8,091 4,650 9,405 

Per cent of butter fat. 
Date. ABC 

2. August 7 Z-2> 4-2 3-6 

August 15 3.4 4.3 3.6 

August 2Z 3.4 4.2 zi 

August 31 ZZ 4.0 3-6 

4 | 13-4 4| 16.7 4| 14-5 
Average test 3.35 4.17 3.62 



CALCULATING DIVIDENDS 121 

4- 
Total milk. Ave. test. Total butter fat. 

3. A 8,091 X 3.35 = 27i.05lbs. 

B 4,650 X 4.17 = 193.91 lbs. 

C 9,405 X 3.62 = 340.46 lbs. 



Total butter fat at Creamery = 805.42 lbs. 

Sales of butter. 

205 lbs. at 23 cts. = $47-15 
240 lbs. at 23.5 cts. = 56.40 
214 lbs. at 24 cts. = 51-36 
269 lbs. at 24 cts. = 64.56 



Total... 928 Total $219 -47 

6. Total pounds of butter = 928. 

Price charged for making = 3 cts. per pound. 
928 X .03 = $27.84 = Amount charged to cover running 
expenses. 

7. $219.47 — $27.84 = $191. 63 = Net money due patrons. 

8. $191.63-^805.42 = $.2379 = Average price per pound but- 

ter fat. 

9. 271.05 X $.2379 = $64.48 = A's money. 
193.91 X .2379= 46.13 = B's money. 
340.46 X .2379 = 81.00 = C's money. 



OVERRUN. 

In a well conducted creamery the total pounds of butter 
is always greater than the total pounds of butter fat. The 
excess is called the ''overrun." 

In the above problem 805.42 pounds of butter fat made 928 
pounds of butter. 

928.00 — 805.42= 122.58= No. pounds overrun. 
122.58 -^ 805.42 = 15.2 = Per cent overrun. 



122 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

Overrun from Milk and Cream. Where up-to-date 
methods are employed in manufacturing butter, the aver- 
age overrun from milk is from 17 to 18% and that from 
cream, 19 to 20%. The smaller overrun from milk is 
due to the loss of fat in skimming. See "whole milk and 
cream," page 126. 

The overrun will vary according to the following condi- 
tions: (i) efficiency in skimming and churning; (2) 
richness of milk and cream; (3) composition of butter, 
especially with reference to the percentage ^f water; and 
(4) loss of butter fat in vats, ripeners, cans, printing, 
packing, etc. Rich milk and cream yield a somewhat 
higher overrun than milk and cream relatively poor in 
butter fat. 

MONTHLY state:me:nt I. 

When the monthly payments are made each patron is 
presented with an envelope upon which is printed his indi- 
vidual account with the creamery and also the entire 
transactions of the creamery. A check on the nearest 
bank, or the money, is placed in the envelope and handed 
to the patron on ''pay day." Below is shown such a 
monthly statement: 



CALCULATING DIVIDENDS 123 

Creamery Co. 



IN ACCOUNT WITH 



Mr. 



For the montli of_ 



190 



Cr. 



No. lbs. milk delivered 
by you, - - - . 
Average test, 
No. lbs. of butter fat, . 
Price per lb. " 

S. 



Lbs. butter. . 

Cans, @ 

Cash, 

Hauling, @.. 
per 100 lbs. 



Dr. 



Balance due you, 

Total lbs. milk delivered at creamery, 
Average test at creamery. 
Total lbs. of Butter fat at creamery, 
lbs. @ 



Sales 

of 
Butter. 

Less 



(( (< 



(< (i 



Balance due patrons, 
Per cent, overrun 
Testing witnessed by. 



cts. for making. 



Prest. 

Sec'y. 



124 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

AVERAGING TESTS. 

In whole milk creameries the amount of milk delivered 
from day to day and the test of the same vary so little 
during any month that buttermakers have found the 
method of averaging- tests as indicated on page 120 en- 
tirely satisfactory. From a theoretical standpoint, this 
method of averaging tests is open to criticism and should 
not be employed where tests vary much from one week 
to another as is usually the case in cream deliveries. In 
the latter case, if weekly composite samples are tested, 
the total cream delivered each week is multiplied by its 
test. Where the tests vary greatly from one testing to 
another, the general rule to follow in calculating the 
amount of butter fat delivered by each patron is to mul- 
tiply each test by the amount of cream (or milk) it re- 
presents. 

MONTHLY STATEMENT II. 

The preceding pages show the correct method of calcu- 
lating the dividend at creameries. The author has learned 
from experience, however, that it is often difficult to make 
clear to patrons how the price per pound of butter fat is 
obtained. Frequently also competing creameries are in- 
clined to cut a little on the test to increase the price per 
pound of butter fat. Where trouble from these sources 
is experienced dividends may be apportioned on the plan 
of the monthly statement shown on the next page. 



CALCULATING DIVIDENDS 125 

. Creamery Co. 



IN ACCOUNT WITH 



Mr. 



for tiie month of_ 



190 



Cr. 



No. lbs. milk delivered 
by you, - - - . 
Average test, 
No. lbs. of butter fat, . 

fo 



Overrun 



lbs. 



Total lbs. of butter 
Price per lb. " 



Lbs. butter. 

Cans, @ 

Cash, 



Hauling. @-.... 
per 100 lbs., 



Dr. 



Balance due you, 

Total lbs. milk delivered at creamery, 

Average test at creamery, 

Total lbs. of Butter fat at creamery, 



Sales ! 



r 



Of ^ 
Butter, i 



lbs. 



(( (( 



(( (( 



L 

Average price, per lb. butter 

cts. for making. 

Testing witnessed by 



Prest. 

Sec'y. 



126 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

In this method the net price per pound of butter is 
used instead of the price per pound of butter fat. The 
method involves a Httle more work as each patron's over- 
run in pounds must be calculated separately. For clear- 
ness, however, we believe no other method surpasses this. 

The price of butter net to the patrons is obtained by 
subtracting the price charged for making from the aver- 
age price for which the butter has sold. This average 
price is found by dividing the total gross receipts by the 
total pounds of butter at the creamery, thus : 

, Sales of butter. 

205 lbs. at 23 cts. = $47-15 

240 lbs. at 23!/^ cts. = 56.40 

214 lbs. at 24 cts. = 51-36 

269 lbs. at 24 cts. = 64.56 



Total.. 928 Total $219-47 

$2 1 9.47 -^ 928 = $.2365 = Average price for which butter 
was sold. $.2365 less three cents for making = $.2065 = 
price of butter net patrons. The butter fat plus overrun 
multiplied by the net price gives each patron's portion of 
the dividend. 

II. Whole Milk and Cream. Where both whole milk 
and cream are received at the creamery, the calculation 
of dividends for cream patrons differs from that for whole 
milk patrons in one point; namely, in increasing each 
cream patron's total butter fat by 2%. The reason for 
this is that the cream patrons are credited with the butter 
fat found in the cream, while the whole milk patrons are 
credited with all the butter fat found in the milk, which 
is about 2% more than would be found in the cream from 
the same milk, 2% of the butter fat being lost in the 
skim-milk. To illustrate : 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 127 

A delivers 6,500 pounds of milk testing 4.0%. 

B delivers 600 pounds of cream testing 30%. 

A's total fat = 6,500 X -04 = 260 pounds. 
^ B's total fat = 600 X .30 = 180 pounds. 

To increase B's fat by 2%, we multiply 180 by 1.02 
which equals 183.6. 

'In making the dividend, therefore, A is paid for 260 
pounds of butter fat and B for 183.6 pounds. 

THE Two PER CENT — HOW CALCUIvATED. 

In a well conducted creamery the average loss of fat 
in the skim-milk should not be more than .078%. Dividing 
this figure by the average percentage of fat in milk, 3.9, 
we get .02. So that in the separating process .02 pound 
of fat is lost in the skim-milk for every pound of fat 
present in the milk. 

From the above calculation it will be seen that the cream 
factor (2%) would necessarily vary with the efficiency 
of skimming and the average test of the milk. To deter- 
mine what this shall be for any particular creamery divide 
the average loss of fat in the skim-milk by the average 
test of the milk at the creamery. 



CHAPTER XII. 

THEORETICAL OVERRUN. 

For the purpose of instructing patrons with regard to 
the percentage of overrun the following calculation is sub- 
mitted which incidentally involves the calculation of the 
amount of skim-milk and buttermilk to be returned from 
I GO pounds of milk, a calculation with which every but- 
ter maker should be familiar. 

I. To calculate the amount of skim-milk per lOO 
pounds of milk. 

Rule: Divide the per cent of fat in milk by the per 
cent of fat in cream and multiply the result by loo ; the 
product subtracted from lOO will be the number pounds 
of skim-milk. 

Example : -How much skim-milk is obtained from lOO 
pounds of 4% milk when the separator delivers a 40% 
cream ? 

4 -^ 40 = .10, .10 X 100 = 10, 100 — 10 = 90 = 
No. lbs. skim-milk. 

Corollaries. ( i ) The richer the milk and the poorer 
the cream the less skim-milk. 

(2.) The poorer the milk and the richer the cream the 
more skim-milk. 

To allow for variations in richness of cream and small 
overweights at the creamery, 3 should be subtracted from 
the calculated amount of skim-milk. Thus in the problem 
above, the skim-milk should be distributed on the basis 
of 87 instead of 90 pounds per 100 pounds of milk as 
calculated. 

128 



THEORETICAL OVERRUN 129 

2. To calculate the amount of buttermilk per lOO 
pounds of milk. 

Rule: This is approximately found by increasing the 
pounds of butter fat in the cream by one-sixth and sub- 
tracting the result from the total pounds of cream. 

Example : How much buttermilk from lOO pounds of 
4% milk yielding lo pounds of cream testing 40% ? 

10 X .40 = 4.0 = lbs. of butter fat. 
4X11/6 = 4.66, 10 — 4.66 = 5.34= No. lbs. 
buttermilk. 

Overrun. The method of calculating the actual over- 
run at creameries has already been discussed in Chapter 
XI. With the following known conditions the theoretical 
overrun can be calculated with a fair degree of accuracy : 

(i) Average per cent of fat in butter. 

(2) Loss of fat in skim-milk. 

(3) Loss of fat in buttermilk. 

Problem: 100 pounds of milk testing 4% yields cream 
testing 40%. Test of skim-milk is .05%, that of butter- 
milk .15%. Per cent of fat in butter is 84. Calculate 
butter and overrun. 

By applying the rules for calculating skim-milk -and 
buttermilk we find that there will be 90 pounds of skim- 
milk and 5.34 pounds buttermilk. 

.90 X .05 = ,045 = lb. fat in skim-milk. 
.0534 X .15 = .008= lb. fat in buttermilk. 

Total loss = .053 
4 — .053 = 3,947 = fat made into butter. 
3.947 -i- .84 = 4.70 = lbs. butter made. 
4.70 — 4= .70 = overrun in lbs. 
.7-f-4X 100=17.5 = overrun in per cent. 
9 



CHAPTER XIII. 

HANDLING OF SKIM MILK AND BUTTERMILK. 

In recent years much attention has been given to the 
problem of skim-milk distribution at creameries. The old 
way of weighing on a common pair of scales is too slow 
and tedious. Efforts to improve upon this method of 
weighing have resulted in bringing upon the market vari- 
ous kinds of automatic weighing and measuring devices 
such as our skim-milk weighers and check pumps. With 
the skim-milk weigher the patron drops into the machine 
a check corresponding to the amount of milk delivered, 
and the amount of skim-milk called for by the check is 
weighed or measured out automatically. In the case of 
the check pump the operation is somewhat different. A 
check is dropped into the pump and, instead of flowing 
out, the amount of skim-milk called for by the check is 
pumped out. 

Some of these skimmilk weighers are giving good 
satisfaction when properly handled. But some of 
the creameries are still adhering to the old method of 
weighing on a common platform scales which, though 
tedious, is still perhaps the most accurate method. 

Attention is here called to an automatic valve closing 
arrangement, shown in Fig. 30, which reduces the labor 
of weighing on a platform scales at least fifty per cent. 
A is a common pair of scales, B an ordinary receiving can 
with a two inch valve instead of a faucet, and C a device 
which closes the inlet valve, D, when the proper amount 
of skim-milk has run into the can. 

It will be seen that one end of the rod, C, is attached to 
130 



SKIMMILK AND BUTTERMILK 



131 



the beam rod of the scales, while upon the other rests the 
handle which opens and closes the skim-milk valve. When 
the beam rises the connection is broken and the weight 
of the handle closes the valve. This makes it an auto- 
matic valve. Without this device the closing of the valve 
at the right time requires a good deal of watching which 
consumes too much time. 

A skim-milk table like that shown below should be 
posted in a conspicuous place so that no time needs to be 
wasted in calculating each patron's skim-milk. 



SKIM-M[LK TABLE-85 POUNDS PER 100 
POUNDS MILK. 



Milk. 


1% 

CO 


MUk. 


i' 


Milk. 


ll 


1 
Milk. 


ll 


10 


8 


110 


93 


210 


178 


310 


263 


20 


17 


120 


102 


220 


187 , 

1 


320 


272 


30 


25 


130 


110 


230 


195 


330 


280 


40 


34 


140 


119 


240 


204 


340 


289 


50 


42 


150 
160 


127 


250 


212 


350 


297 


60 


51 


136 


260 


221 


360 


306 


70 


59 


170 


144 


270 


229 


370 


314 


80 


68 


180 


153 

161 


280 


238 


380 


323 


90 


76 


190 


290 


246 


390 


331 


100 


85 


200 


170 


300 


255 


400 


340 



132 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



With the automatic valve it is possible for the man who 
weighs in the milk also to weigh out the skim-milk with 
little additional work. The device is unpatented and costs 
not more than one dollar. Attached to an ordinary plat- 




Fig. 30. -Apparatus for distributing skim-milk and buttermilk. 

form scales, it furnishes with them an ideal skim-milk 
weigher which is cheap, simple, accurate, and needs no 
repairs. 



PASTEURIZATION OF SKIM MILK. 

Objects; There are two main purposes in pasteuriz- 
ing skimmilk: One is to preserve the feeding value by 



SKI MM ILK AND BUTTERMILK 133 

keeping- it sweet ; the other is to kill the tubercle bacilli 
that may be found in it. 

To secure the greatest feeding value of skimmilk it 
must be fed sweet. During the summer months skim- 
milk as it is ordinarily returned from creameries keeps 
sweet but a short time, a fact which has compelled many 
a farmer to purchase a hand separator and separate the 
milk at the farm. 

The danger of spreading tuberculosis among cattle and 
swine through creamery skimmilk is so well established 
now that several states have passed laws making pasteur- 
ization of skimmilk compulsory. Indeed such laws have 
existed in Denmark for many years. 

Either of the above purposes should be sufficient to 
cause butter makers and creamery managers to feel it 
their duty to pasteurize the skimmilk without being 
driven to it by law. 

Where the skinmiilk is returned hot from the cream- 
ery, pasteurization has the additional advantage of steriliz- 
ing the milk cans. 

Pasteurizing Temperature.- The minimum tempera- 
ture should be placed at 176° F, which makes it possible 
to determine by means of Storch's test (see appendix) 
whether the skimmilk has been pasteurized or not. 

This minimum limit is necessary to insure a thor- 
ough destruction of bacteria. It is hardly necessary to 
fix a maximum limit of temperature since it is difficult 
to exceed 190° F, and little objection can be raised to 
approaching this temperature. Indeed it is believed that 
where thorough pasteurization is desired it is advisable 
to keep the temperature close to 190° F. 

Methods of Pasteurizing. Pasteurization is accom- 



134 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



plished (i) by admitting either "live" or "exhaust" steam 
directly to the skimmilk; (2) by admitting either live or 
exhaust steam to pasteurizers which do not allow the steam 
to come in contact with the skimmilk. The former is 
usually spoken of as the direct method, the latter as the 
indirect method. 

Direct Method. This is the method most commonly 
employed by creameries at the present time, and un- 
doubtedly so because it does not require any special out- 
lay for pasteurizers. Where this method is employed the 



EXHAUST STEAM 



PASTE.URIZE.R 



SKIM 



CAPACITV 



vJL- 



MIUK TANK 



10,000 l_BS, 



SKIM MII_K 
VA/CIGHE-.R. 



6 



SKIM M11_K 
PUMP 



Fig. 31.— Skim-milk tank and pasteurizer 



heating is usually accomplished by the use of the exhaust 
steam from the engine. 

There are three objections to this method of pasteuriz- 



SKI MM ILK AND BUTTERMILK 135 

ing: (i) the dilution of the skimmilk by condensed 
steam; (2) the cyhnder oil carried into the milk where 
exhaust steam is used; and (3) the trouble from ex- 
cessive foaming. 

There are pasteurizers upon the market provided with 
oil traps which have been reported as eliminating the 
trouble from cylinder oil. The trouble from foaming can 
also be largely eliminated. Various so-called "foam kill- 
ers" have been placed upon the market which have been 
more or less successful in obviating this trouble. 

Fig. 31 illustrates a method of handling skimmilk 
which prevents, to a great extent, the difficulty usually ex- 
perienced from foam. 

The pasteurizer may be placed on top of the skimmilk 
tank and the pasteurized skimmilk allowed to flow 
through a pipe which runs to within an inch or an inch 
and a half of the bottom of the tank. A pipe so placed 
will tend to destroy a portion of the foam formed in the 
heater. The tank is of ample size to hold the foam not 
thus destroyed, which, during the early summer, is quite 
considerable. The larger the tank the less trouble will 
be experienced from the foam. 

While the trouble from oil and foam may be largely 
obviated, the dilution resulting from the condensed steam 
must always stand as an objection to the direct method of 
pasteurizing skimmilk. 

Indirect Method. Skimmilk can be pasteurized with 
the "continuous" style of pasteurizers in the same way as 
cream. This method is now employed in many creameries 
and should be adopted wherever possible. The extra cost 
of a pasteurizer is more than compensated for in doing 
away with the objections inherent in the direct method of 



136 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

pasteurizing. With the indirect method as with the 
direct, either live or exhaust steam, or both, may be used. 
Cooling Undesirable. While cooling the skimmilk 
has some advantages, these are more than counter- 
balanced by the expense necessary in doing this and by 
losing the sterilizing effect of the hot milk on the cans. 
The danger from tubercle organisms cannot be eliminated 
by placing (cooled) pasteurized skimmilk in cans con^ 
taining residues of the original, infected milk. 

Handling Buttermilk. To insure a just distribution 
of buttermilk at creameries it is necessary to either weigh 
or measure it out to the patrons. The long cylindrical 
can, X, shown at the left in Fig. 30, illustrates a very con- 
venient and satisfactory measuring device. The measur- 
ing is done by means of a long hollow shaft, N, which 
consists of two boards between which a pointer, M, is 
made to slide. Attached to the pointer is a string which 
passes over pulleys, O and P, and ends in the buttermilk 
can where it is attached to a wooden disc floating on top 
of the buttermilk. As the buttermilk flows into the can 
the disc rises, causing the pointer to sink in the shaft. 
Marks on the shaft indicate the number of pailfuls 
measured out. 

Where milk or cream is infected with tubercle organ- 
isms, the butter and buttermilk from the same will also 
be infected. To eliminate the danger from these sources, 
all cream should be pasteurized for buttermaking, and 
fortunately this is the prevailing tendency. Buttermilk 
can not be pasteurized as successfully as skimmilk, 
because the high temperature necessary will tend to cause 
the curd to separate. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

BUTTER JUDGING. 

Expert butter judges, like great musicians, are "born" 
not "made." A good musician must be born with a good 
ear, a good butter judge with a good nose. Most people, 
however, can become fair musicians with proper training, 
and the same may be said of butter judges. 

By repeated judging and comparing of different sam- 
ples of butter one will soon become able to make fair 
discriminations. The important point to learn is to know 
an ideal butter when you see it. A butter maker can 
not expect to reach or even approach an ideal butter un- 
less he has the ideal fixed in mind. 

One can learn much about butter judging by daily ex- 
amining his own make. But to become expert, he must 
be able to compare his score with that of recognized 
experts. Dairy conventions and butter scoring tests offer 
excellent opportunities for such comparison. 

BASIS FOR JUDGING. 

Butter is judged commercially on the basis of 45 points 
for flavor, 25 for texture, 15 for color, 10 for salt, and 5 
for package, total 100. 

Flavor. Strictly speaking flavor means taste. But 
the use of the term flavor in butter judging usually in- 
cludes both taste and aroma, the emphasis resting on the 
latter. Aroma is the odor noticeable when a sample of 
butter is held close to the nose, hence frequently called 
"nose" aroma. 

137 



138 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

It is difficult to describe an ideal butter flavor. It may, 
perhaps, be likened to the flavor of clean, uncontaminated, 
well ripened cream, that is, it should be rich and creamy. 

Texture. This includes three distinct things: (i) 
grain, (2) body, and (3) brine. 

An ideal grain is indicated by a somewhat granular 
appearance when a piece of butter is broken, an appear- 
ance quite similar to that of the broken ends of a steel 
rod. 

Body refers to the consistency of butter. In other 
words, it refers to its degree of firmness or its ability 
to "set up" well at ordinary temperatures. 

Brine refers to the amount and character of the water 
in butter. It should be as clear as water and not present 
in such quantities as to run off the trier. 

Color. The essential thing in color is to have it 
uniform. It should have a little deeper shade than that 
produced by June pasturage. Artificial coloring is there- 
fore necessary. 

Salt. As with color, the essential thing with salt is to 
have it evenly worked through the butter and none of it 
should remain undissolved. 

Package. Butter should be well packed and the top 
covered with cheese cloth and saturated brine. The 
package should be neat and clean and in no way mutilated. 

butte:r score cards. 

The score card contains the ''score" or judgment as 
given by the judge. In commercial judging of butter a 
score card is used which is quite similar to the one given 
below. 



BUTTER JUDGING 
BUTTER SCORE CARD. 



139 



Name 



Sample. 


No. 


1 


2 


3 












Flavor 


45 
25 
15 
10 

5 


40 


38 


36 












Texture 


23 


23 


23 












Color - 


15 


14 


14 












Salt 


10 


10 


9 












Package 


5 


5 


5 






























Total - 


100 


93 


90 


87 













Date. 



Judge. 



In such scoring no attempt is made to point out the 
particular defects any further than to indicate the number 
of points for each sample. The total number of points 
determines the class to which the butter belongs. Thus 
in the score card above, sample No. i grades as "extras," 
sample No. 2 as "firsts," and sample No. 3 as "seconds." 

At dairy conventions and in educational butter scoring 
tests the object in judging is not so much to determine the 
score of the butter as to point out as nearly as possible the 
causes of any defects and to suggest remedies for over- 
coming them. The score card that may be used in this 
case is shown on the next page. 



140 



No. 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 
BUTTER SCORE CARD 



Remarks 



Date. 





1 

s. 

45 

25 

15 

10 

5 


c : 

i ; 

CO 6 

^ 1 


s 

^ a. 




• 


Curdy. 

Light. 
Rancid. 


Flavor. 






Fishy. 
Feverish 
OUy or greasy. 








Weedy. 
Stable. 
Unclean. 
High acid. 
, Bitter. 

Poor grain. 


Texture 






Cloudy brine. 
Weak body. 
Too much brine. 
I, Greasy. 

Mottles, 
White specks. 








Color 






Too high. 
Too light. 








Color specks. 
Too much salt. 


Salt 






(Undissolved.) 
Poor salt. 








^ Lacks salt. 
■ Dirty. 


Package 






1 Poorly packed. 

* 
Poorly nailed. 


Total 


100 






Poorly lined. 



Judges 



BUTTER JUDGING 141 

A brief discussion of the defects indicated on this score 
card is given below : 

FLAVOR. 

Curdy flavor is caused by overripened starters or add- 
ing starters to cream while the latter is at too high a 
temperature. Also by ripening very thin cream at high 
temperatures. 

Light flavor is generally due to churning cream too 
sweet. It may be due also to too much washing and to 
the character of the feed. It is well known that good 
succulent June pasturage produces a higher flavored 
butter than average dry winter feed. 

Rancid flavor is due chiefly to overripened cream. The 
age of the milk, cream, and butter is also frequently the 
cause of rancidity. Good butter exposed to light and air 
at ordinary temperatures turns rancid in a very short time. 

Feverish flavor is noticeable principally in the spring 
of the year when cows are turned out on pasture and is, 
no doubt, due in most cases to the sudden change from 
dry feed to luxuriant pasturage. It is possible that this 
feverish or grassy odor is due partly to the grass itself 
and partly to a feverish condition of the cow caused by 
the sudden change of feed. We find that any feverish 
condition of the cow will manifest itself in the milk and 
the products therefrom. 

Oily or greasy flavor may be caused by churning and 
working butter at too high a temperature, or by keeping 
the milk and cream at high temperatures. It may also 
be caused by using poor color or too much color. Bad 
smelling color that shows sediment at the bottom should 
not be used. Bacteriologists claim that certain species of 



142 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

bacteria have the power of imparting an oily flavor to 
butter. 

Weedy flavors are caused by cows feeding on weeds. 
Leeks or wild onions are frequently the cause of very 
serious trouble when cows have free access to them. The 
trouble may also be caused by exposing milk and cream 
to an atmosphere charged with objectionable odors. 

Fishy flavor, according to L. A. Rogers, is due to 
oxidation which is favored by a high acid cream and 
overworking. The latter favors oxidation by increasing 
the amount of air in butter. 

Stable flavor is caused by lack of cleanliness in milking, 
and by keeping milk too long in, or near, a dirty stable. 

Unclean flavors are caused by dirty pails, strainers, 
and cans, filthy creamery conditions, and general unclean- 
liness in the care and handling of milk. 

High acid flavor is due to oversoured cream or starter. 

Bitter flavor is caused by keeping cream too long at 
low temperatures. 

texture;. 

Poor grain is caused by overworking and overchurn- 
ing ; also by too high temperatures in churning and work- 
ing. 

Weak body is usually caused by employing too high 
temperatures in the entire process of manufacture, in- 
cluding the ripening of the cream. These high tempera- 
tures usually result in overripened cream, overchurned 
butter and consequently butter with too high a water con- 
tent. The character of the butter fat also influences the 
body of the butter. 

Too much brine is caused chiefly by underworking and 
hy churning to small granules. 



BUTTER JUDGING 143 

Cloudy brine is caused by churning at too high a tem- 
perature and also by granulating too coarse. Insufficient 
washing has a tendency to produce a cloudy brine. 

Greasy butter is caused by overworking or by handling 
at too high temperatures. 

COLOR. 

Mottles are discolorations in butter caused by the un- 
even distribution of salt. Those portions of the butter 
that contain the most salt will have the deepest color 
because of the attraction of salt for color. Mottles can 
always be removed from butter by working, but frequently 
the conditions are such as to require overworking to 
secure this end. 

• Van Slyke and Hart have shown that mottles can no: 
be caused in butter when the latter is thoroughly freed 
from proteids. This suggests the importance of churning 
and washing in such a manner as to remove the butter- 
milk as completely as possible. 

The following are conditions that favor mottles : 

1. Coarse uneven grained salt. 

2. Carelessly adding the salt to the churn. 

3. Butter too cold for working. 

4. Using too cold or too warm wash water. 

5. Too much buttermilk in the butter. 

6. Not enough moisture in butter when worked. 
White specks are due either to curd particles in cream 

caused by overripening and lack of stirring during ripen- 
ing, or to dried and hardened cream. 

Color specks are tiny specks of color caused by using 
a poor grade of color, old color, or color that has been 
kept at too high a temperature. 



144 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

SALT. 

Undissolved salt may be due to three things: 

1. Poor salt. 

2. Too much draining before salting. 

3. Salting the butter at too low a temperature. 

SAMPLE FOR SCORING. 

In judging butter only a small sample is necessary 
which is secured by inserting a "trier" into the butter and 
giving it a whole turn, after which the plug of butter may 
be removed. 



CHAPTER XV. 

PASTEURIZATION AS APPLIED TO BUTTER MAKING. 

The process known as pasteurization derives its name 
from the eminent French bacteriologist Pasteur. It con- 
sists in heating and cooHng in a manner which will de- 
stroy the vegetative or actively growing bacteria. Milk 
or cream is also considered pasteurized when only the 
bulk of the vegetative bacteria is destroyed. 

Beginning of Cream Pasteurization. About twenty 
years ago Storch, the noted Danish scientist, succeeded 
in isolating from milk the bacteria that are needed in 
successfully ripening cream. Cultures of these bacteria 
were prepared and propagated in his laboratory and 
placed upon the market for cream ripening. It became 
evident to Storch, however, that the best results could 
not be expected when these cultures were added to cream 
that was already teeming with various species of bacteria. 
This led him to the idea of preparing a clean field for 
his cultures by destroying the germs that already existed 
in the cream by pasteurizing it. After this treatment the 
cream was inoculated with the desirable germs that he had 
isolated and propagated for this purpose. The result of 
this practice was that it became possible to produce butter 
which not only possessed a very fine flavor but which was 
characterized by its extreme uniformity and good keeping 
quality. 

Storch soon succeeded in introducing this method of 
butter making into Danish creameries which has done 
10 145 



146 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

much toward making Denmark the most noted butter- 
producing country in the world. Practically all butter 
produced in that country at the present time is made 
from pasteurized cream. 

Pasteurized Butter in America. The growth of the 
system of pasteurized butter making has been slow in 
America up to within recent years. That pasteurized 
butter possesses merits over unpasteurized has, however, 
long since been demonstrated by American agricultural 
colleges and private investigators. It remained, never- 
theless, for our practical butter makers to place the 
merits of this system beyond a possible doubt. During 
the past two years most of the important prizes awarded 
to butter makers have gone to makers of pasteurized 
butter. Many of the leading and champion butter makers 
of the United States, are the firmest advocates of pasteui 
ization. Creameries all over the country are now turn- 
ing their attention to pasteurization and the general 
adoption of the system in America can only be a matter 
of time. Indeed a large percentage of the creameries ir.- 
cluding some of the largest in the world, are now making 
butter exclusively from pasteurized cream. 

Why We Should Pasteurize. It must not be for- 
gotten that the standard of American butter is becom- 
ing higher year after year. Methods which only six years 
ago produced a butter that fairly suited the general 
market, are now obsolete and unsatisfactory. In il- 
lustration of this may be- cited the practice of using butter- 
milk starters, or the use of no starters at all, in creamery 
practice. The author has closely watched the careers of 
several young men who, only a few years ago, had met 
with a fair degree of success in ripening cream with but- 



PASTEURIZATION OF CREAM 147 

termilk starters, but whose persistence in adhering to old 
methods has driven them out of the profession of butter 
making. 

The rational use of starters has done much to raise 
the general standard of butter in America. But the finest 
starters added to cream already teeming with many species 
of good and bad bacteria, can not produce the best re- 
sults. It is obvious that the best results with good starters 
are possible only when the bacteria in the cream are first 
destroyed by pasteurization so that the good germs intro- 
duced by the starter may have a clean field for develop- 
ment. 

If nothing but good cream and milk were delivered 
at our creameries pasteurization could hold no place 
in our system of butter making, for such milk could 
not be improved by this process. But we can not hope, 
for many years at least, to have all milk arrive at the 
creameries in good, clean condition, though of course 
great possibilities remain for improvement in this direc- 
tion. Some milk will persist in coming to the cream- 
ery too good to reject and too poor to make the best qual- 
ity of butter. 

Then, too, with the advent of the hand separator system 
in creamery butter , making, pasteurization has become 
more imperative than ever before. Where cream of vary- 
ing ages and acidity is received it is more difficult to 
secure uniformity and good keeping quality in butter than 
is the case where the milk is daily delivered to the cream- 
ery. 

It is hoped that the general recognition of the merits 
of pasteurization will soon be followed by the adoption 
of this method of butter making in all of our creameries. 
We need to produce a butter of better keeping quality and 



148 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

of greater uniformity, two qualities which American but- 
ter notably lacks. 

Methods of Making Pasteurized Butter. Pasteur- 
ized butter may be made by pasteurizing either the milk 
or the cream. The latter method is the one generally em- 
ployed at the present time. 

The machines used for pasteurizing are of two kinds: 

I. Discontinuous pasteurizers used for pasteurizing 
small quantities of milk or cream, in which the heating- 
lasts from 15 to 30 minutes, according as the tempera- 
ture is high or low. 2. Continuous pasteurizers in which 
a constant stream of cream or milk flows through the 
machine and is heated only during its few moments pas- 
sage from the bottom to the top of the pasteurizer. 

The heating in both classes of machines is done in a 
jacket surrounding the milk or cream in which either 
live steam or hot water is used. The latter is to be 
preferred, because hot water does not scorch as much as 
live steam. 

In purchasing a pasteurizer the following points should 
be observed : first, the ease with which the machine can 
be cleaned ; second, the capacity, which should be large 
enough to avoid crowding; third, the ease and uniformity 
with which the cream or milk can be heated ; fourth the 
durability of the machine. 

It is a g:reat mistake to buy a machine of too small 
capacity. Such a machine must be fed so heavily as to 
necessitate a thick layer of milk or cream over the heating 
surface which can not result in uniform heating. 

Cream Pasteurization ^ For creameries the most 
popular as well as the most practical method of making 
pasteurized butter consists in heating cream from 165° 



PASTEURIZATION OT CREAM 



149 



to 185° F. in a continuous pasteurizer and then rapidly 
cooling- it to 65° F. By this treatment the great bulk of 
bacteria is destroyed. 



SPRING WATER 



DISCHARGE { 




SPRIN SWATCH 
SUPPLY 



ce: water 

RETURN 



CE WATPR 
^ SUPPLY 



Fig. 32.— Tubular cooler. 

A cooler like that shown in Fig. 32 is desirable with 
pasteurizers not provided with cooling attachments. A 
loose tin cover over the cooler prevents contamination of 
the cream with dust, flies and bacteria while it is flow- 
ing over the cooler. 

The Chief Advantages of pasteurizing cream are as 
follows : 



1. Improves the flavor of butter. 

2. Leads to greater uniformity. 



150 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

3. Increases the keeping quality. 

4. Eliminates undesirable odors. 

5. Renders butter safe from disease germs. 

Milk and cream always contain bad flavor producing 
bacteria in varying quantities. The destruction of these 
by the pasteurizing process and their subsequent replace- 
ment by good flavor producing bacteria, must afford suffi- 
cient proof for the first three advantages above mentioned. 

The keeping quality of the butter made from pasteurized 
cream is so much superior to that from the unpasteurized, 
that the author feels that the increased keeping quality 
alone should warrant the general introduction of pasteuri- 
zation in our system of butter making. 

Experience has also shown that there is nothing so 
effective in eliminating bad odors from milk and cream 
as the high temperatures employed in pasteurizing. High 
temperatures in themselves tend to expel from milk or 
cream undesirable odors so frequently present, especially 
during the weedy season. When the high temperature 
is assisted by the whirling motion to which milk and cream 
are subjected in the pasteurizer, or possibly the separator, 
the power of eliminating bad odors is materially increased. 

In regard to the advsintage of pasteurizing cream to 
safeguard butter against disease germs, it should be borne 
in mind, that when milk is infected with this class of 
organisms the butter from the same will also be infected. 
Thus it has been shown that not only will butter contain 
tubercle bacilli when made from milk containing them, 
but the bacilli retain their virulence in butter for a con- 
siderable period of time. 

The danger from tubercle bacilli has recently caused 
the Chicago board of health to pass an ordinance ex- 



PASTEURIZATION OF CREAM l51 

eluding from the eity all butter which has not been safe- 
guarded against these organisms, either by pasteurizing 
the cream or by applying the tuberculin test to herds from 
which the butter is obtained and excluding all reacting 
animals. 

Certainly if it is necessary to pasteurize skimmilk to 
prevent the spread of tuberculosis among live stock, it 
should be all the more imperative to pasteurize the cream 
to prevent the spread of tuberculosis in the hum.an family 
through infected butter. 

As yi the case of cream ripeners, there are a number 
oi different makes of cream pasteurizers upon the market 
which are giving good satisfaction. Pasteurization will 
not prove successful with any pasteurizer unless the cream 
is heated to the proper temperature and rapidly cooled 
to at least 65° F. immediately after it leaves the pasteur- 
izer. 

Pasteurization of Gathered Cream. There is proba- 
bly no problem along pasteurizing lines of greater impor- 
tance at present than the pasteurization of hand separator 
or gathered cream. Heretofore the apparent difficulty in 
the way of pasteurizing this cream has been the high 
degree of acidity which it often reaches before delivery 
to the creamery. Experiments and practical creamery 
results show beyond doubt that sour cream containing not 
less than 30% fat can be successfully pasteurized. Much 
greater care is necessary when the fat content falls below 
30% and buttermakers should insist upon making 30% 
the minimum, which can easily be done with hand separa- 
tors. 

The chief danger in pasteurizing thin sour cream is the 
coagulation of the casein and the consequent greater loss 



152 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

of fat in the buttermilk. High temperatures are less liable 
to produce this result than relatively low. Cream of this 
kind should be pasteurized at not lower than 185° F. 
The coagulation of the casein interferes with the cooling 
and straining of the cream, and it has been shown that 
the high loss of fat in the buttermilk is at least partly 
due to the fat globules which are enclosed in the curd 
particles. 

In general, pasteurized cream must be churned at a 
lower temperature than unpasteurized to get exhaustive 
churnings. Where cream has been heated it is also neces- 
sary to keep it at a low temperature longer before churn- 
ing than unheated cream, because of the slowness with 
which the fat becomes thoroughly chilled. 

The acidity of cream is somewhat diminished by the 
pasteurizing process. This process also diminishes the 
heavy consistency of sour cream, which it does not seem 
to recover even when ripened with a heavy starter. This, 
however, has no effect on the quality of butter. 

To obtain good results from pasteurizing sour cream it 
is absolutely essential to treat the pasteurized product with 
a heavy starter even if the latter shows an acidity of 
0.6% or more. 

Cost of Pasteurizing Cream. According to Danish 
experiments the cost of pasteurizing cream is approxi- 
mately .1 cent per pound of butter. These results seem 
to be confirmed by the best practical butter makers in 
this country who have pasteurized for several years. 

The cost of pasteurizing must, however, always depend 
largely upon the manner in which the pasteurizing proc- 
ess is carried out. For example, if the water used for 
cooling the cream is pumped into the water supply tank 



PASTEURIZATION OF CRBAM 153 

for the boiler, a large portion of the heat used for pas- 
teurizing- is recovered. Further, if the proper coolers are 
used, ordinary well water will cool the cream to the 
ripening temperature without the use of ice. Some have 
also found it practical to use the exhaust steam from the 
engine for pasteurizing cream. 

The care and cleaning of the pasteurizer and cooler 
will, of course, entail extra labor, but the labor thus in- 
volved will not materially add to the expense of pasteuriz- 
ing. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

CONTROL OF WATER IN BUTTER. 

Importance of Water Control. First of all it is 
necessary to know how to control the water in butter in 
order to keep within the limits of the law which classes 
butter as adulterated when it contains i6% or more of 
water. That there is danger of exceeding this limit is 
evinced by the number of penalties which buttermakers 
have been obliged to pay in recent years. 

There is also a great deal of butter on the market which 
is unnecessarily low in water content. This means a 
reduced yield in butter, and consequently places the manu- 
facturers of such butter at a disadvantage with com- 
petitors who are obtaining normal yields. 

Finally it is necessary to understand the means of con- 
trolling water in order that uniformity may be secured 
with respect to this constituent of butter. 

The Buttermaker's Limit. While i6% water is 
legally approachable, the buttermaker, to be on the safe 
side, should make 15% his limit. To allow one per cent, 
latitude for possible inaccuracies in making water deter- 
minations is manifestly the least that can possibly be 
allowed. Buttermakers who are striving to run the water 
content up to within one-half or one-quarter per cent, of 
the legal limit are constantly in danger of falling into 
the clutches of the law. 

FACTORS THAT CONTROL THE WATER CONTENT OF BUTTER. 

Temperature. This is the main factor in the control 
of moisture in butter. A temperature which keeps the 

154 



CONTROL OF WATER IN BUTTER 155 

butterfat in a soft, plastic condition during churning and 
working favors the retention of water in butter. The 
temperature, however, must never be so high as to injure 
the texture of the butter or to cause an undue loss of 
fat in the buttermilk. 

Size of Granules. As a rule, the larger the butter 
granules the more water will be retained in the butter. 
The size of the granules should be limited to that of 
a pea, because larger granules will make it difficult to 
properly wash the butter and distribute the salt. 

Amount of Working. When butter is worked in the 
presence of little moisture, the water content decreases 
with the amount of working. On the other hand, it has 
been shown that when butter is worked with considerable 
water present in the churn, the water content may be 
actually increased by continued working. Overworking 
must be carefully avoided. 

Time Between Workings. The shorter the time be- 
tween workings the higher the water content. The high- 
est water content is secured by working butter only once. 
Amount of Salt. It has long been known that salt 
expels moisture from butter. The more salt used, there- 
fore, the smaller the amount of water retained in the 
butter. 

Richness of Cream. Rich cream which churns into 
flaky, irregular granules, tends to increase the water con- 
tent of butter. 

Amount of Cream in Churn. Large churnings are 
more conducive to high water content than small. 

Dry and Wet Salt. The moister the salt when ap- 
plied to the butter the less water it will expel. 

Composition of Butterfat. This may be considered 



156 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

as exerting an indirect influence upon the water content 
of butter. Feeds, breeds, and period of lactation for ex- 
ample change the proportion of soft and hard fats in 
butterfat and therefore have an influence upon the churn- 
ing temperature of cream. 'Butter from stable-fed cows 
receiving feeds like cottonseed meal, which produces a 
hard butterfat, may be perfectly normal in water content, 
while butter from the same cows feeding upon pasture 
(yielding a relatively soft butterfat) may be over- 
loaded with water, if the same churning and working 
temperature is employed in both cases. 

The author recalls several cases where buttermakers 
have exceeded the legal limit for water in butter. These 
occurred in the spring while the cows were being changed 
from dry feed to pasture. It is possible that the butter- 
makers in these instances failed to change the churning 
temperature to meet the changed conditions as to feed. 
The lactation period may also have exerted some influence 
in these cases, since it is possible that many of the cows 
freshened during the transition period from dry feed to 
pasture. (See discussion under "insoluble fats," page 
I5-) 

DETERMINATION OF WATER IN BUTTER. 

One of the most important points in testing butter for 
moisture is to get a sample that will accurately represent 
the whole lot of butter to be tested. Such a sample 
is best secured by making a composite sample, the com- 
ponents being taken from various parts of the tub or 
churn. 

Sampling Tub Butter. Run the trier diagonally 
through the tub and collect butter from different points 



CONTROL OP WATER IN BUTTER 157 

of the plug. Put the composite sample thus collected at 
once into a tightly covered glass jar, and keep it there until 
ready for testing. 

Sampling Butter from the Churn. Take samples 
from as many points of the churn as possible, making 
sure to get some from the ends as well as the middle 
portion of the churn. The more points from which the 
sample is taken the more accurate the results. As in 
sampling tub butter, the composite sample is placed at 
once into an air-tight glass jar where it is kept until 
ready for testing. 

Preparing the Composite Sample for Testing. 
In order to insure a thorough mixing of the sample, it 
should be melted by placing the sample jar in water at 
a temperature slightly higher than the melting point of 
the butter. As soon as melted, the butter is re-solidified 
by running cold water over the jar. The sample, however, 
must be thoroughly shaken during the solidifying process 
to insure an even distribution of moisture. 

Some have secured satisfactory results by simply warm- 
ing the butter (at about ioo° F.) until it assumes a 
creamy consistency and then thoroughly mixing the same 
just before weighing. 

Weighing the Sample. In weighing the butter, first 
weigh the sample dish, making sure that the dish is clean 
and dry. Next place about ten grams of butter in the 
dish and weigh again. The difference between the two 
weighings represents the weight of butter. 

To secure accurate weighings, use scales sensitive to 
at least one centigram and allow the dishes, both with 
and without the butter, to cool to about ioo° F. before 
weighing. While it is necessary to cool the sample, a 



158 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 




Fig. 33.— Scales for moisture determin- 
ation in butter. 



long delay in weighing, on the other hand, is to be avoided 
on account of the danger of the samples absorbing mois- 
ture. Draughts must also be avoided in weighing. Fur- 
thermore, small samples and dishes are more conducive 

to accuracy in weighing 
than large ones. This is 
so because the ordinary 
scales used in weighing 
butter samples are rather 
light in construction and 
hence not adapted to 
heavy w^eighing. For 
this reason a ten- gram 
sample will give better 
results than a fifty-gram 
sample. 

Weighing Samples Direct. M. Michels, formerly in 
charge of the Wisconsin Butter and Cheese scoring ex- 
hibitions, has found that where there is no loose water in 
butter satisfactory results can be secured by transferring 
the butter direct from the sampler to the sample dish. 

Duplicate Tests. Results from a single moisture de- 
termination can not be positively relied upon as being 
correct. In all important testing work duplicate tests 
should be made. Where the duplicates correspond closely 
the average of the two tests may be considered correct. 
Calculating the Per Cent, of Water. Where exactly 
ten grams of butter are used, multiply the loss in weight 
during drying by lo to get the per cent, of water. Ex- 
ample: Weight of butter before drying is lO grams; 
weight after drying is 8.5 grams; the difference, 1.5, 
multiplied by 10 equals 15 per cent, of moisture. 

When somewhat more or less butter is weighed out, 



CONTROL OF WATER IN BUTTER 159 

use the following rule for calculating the per cent, of 
water : 

Rule: Multiply the loss in weight during drying by 
lOO and divide the result by the weight of butter used. 
Example: weight of butter before drying is 10.45 grams; 
weight after drying is 8.90 grams. The difference 1.55, 
multiplied by 100 and divided by 10.45 equals 14.83 equals 
per cent, of water. 

MOISTURE TESTS. 

There are a number of methods in use for determining 
the water content of butter, a few of which will be 
described here. 

The pclipse Method. This consists of a strong, 
double-walled casting wdth a depression into which an 
aluminum beaker fits. The casting is attached to a steam 
pipe which allows steam under pressure to pass between 
its walls. The greater the steam pressure the higher the 
evaporating temperature and hence the shorter the time 
required to evaporate. 

Aboiit ten grams of butter are placed in the aluminum 
beaker and as soon as it begins to show a light brown 
color the evaporation as a rule is complete. With the 
steam pressure ordinarily carried in creameries (about 
50 lbs.) the evaporation is complete in about fifteen 
minutes. 

To make sure that all the moisture has been evaporated, 
re-heat and re- weigh the sample. If the weight after 
the first heating is the same as that after the second, 
it is proof that the first heating was sufficient. 

The Eclipse method especially commends itself for its 
simplicity. 



160 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

The Richmond Method. With this method about ten 
grams of butter are placed in a porcelain dish which is 
heated over an alcohol (or other) flame. The butter 
must be constantly stirred during the heating and care 
must be taken to so regulate the flame as to avoid sput- 
tering. The evaporation can usually be completed in 
about three minutes. This method commends itself espe- 
cially for the rapidity with which the test can be made. 

The Wisconsin Method. This consists of a square, 
double-walled, cast-iron oven heated with steam under 
pressure. The steam circulates between the walls. About 
ten grams of butter are weighed in flat bottom aluminum 
dishes which are placed inside of the oven. At ordi- 
nary steam pressure (about 50 pounds) the evaporation 
is usually completed in thirty minutes. The- sample 
should always be re-heated and re-weighed to make sure 
that the first heating was sufficient. This method com- 
mends itself especially where a large number of samples 
are to be tested, since the oven easily holds from nine 
to sixteen dishes, depending upon the size of the dishes. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

SAMPLING, WEIGHING AND TESTING GATHERED CREAM. 
CREAM SAMPLING AND SAMPLERS. 

Taking an Aliquot Sample. This means that the 
amount of cream taken for the composite test jar, must 
always be proportional to the amount of cream furnished. 
If cream always had the same richness, or if always the 
same amount were furnished, the dipper method of 
sampling would give satisfactory results, provided the 
cream was thoroughly mixed before sampling. But since 
we rarely find two batches of cream alike, either in quan- 
tity or quality, the necessity of taking an aliquot sample 
becomes apparent. This may be made perfectly plain by 
the following illustration : 

Feb. I patron X furnishes 50 lbs. of 20% cream. 
Feb. 2 patron X furnishes 30 lbs. of 30% cream. 
Feb. 3 patron X furnishes 20 lbs. of 40% cream. 

Dividing the total butterfat furnished during the three 
days by the total pounds of cream we get 2^, which repre- 
sents the correct average test. This test would be secured 
by taking aliquot samples. The test by the dipper method 
would equal the sum of the three tests divided by three. 
Thus 20-f 30-|-4CK-3=30, the average test by the dipper 
method, dififering from the correct average test by 3%. 
By the dipper method the same amount of cream is taken 
for a sample, regardless of the amount of cream fur- 
nished. 

11 161 



162 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



Cream Samplers. While an aliquot sample is neces- 
sary only where composite samples are made, samplers 
taking an aliquot sample, like the Scovell, McKay and 
Michels, have the further advantage of securing a more 
accurate sample when the cream is not thoroughly mixed. 
These samplers take a uniform sample from the top to 
the bottom of the cream in the can. The ''milk thief," 
which also takes an aliquot sample, does not take as satis- 
factory a sample when the cream is not thoroughly mixed. 



s 



Ifcs^ Q»>-^^» 




y^ 




Fig. 34. — Michels sampler. 



Fig. 35.— McKay sampler. 



McKay Sampler. This consists of two tubes, one of 
v.h.ich slides into the other. One side of each tube is 
open so that the cream enters along the entire side of the 



GATHERED CREAM ^ 163 

sampler. When the sampler is filled the tubes are turned 
with the openings or slots at right angles to each other, 
thus closing the sampler and permitting the withdrawal 
of the sample of cream. See Fig. 35. 

Michels Sampler. This consists of a modified Scovell 
sampler heated in a tin heater as shown in Fig. 34. 

^ is a steam and hot water reservoir with an inlet at 
B. The steam and hot water discharge through a circle 
of small openings at D. . The condensed steam finds exit 
at C. £ is a Scovell sampler provided with a handle, G, 
and a circular piece of heavy tin, K, which holds the 
sampler in position and prevents the escape of steam. P 
is a strong wire attached to the cap which opens and 
closes the sampler. The wire ends at the top in a right 
angle turn, H, which rests across the top of the sampler 
when the latter is open. The construction of the heater 
prevents the entrance of water into the sampler and neces- 
sitates the use of but a very small amount of steam, which 
is admitted through the steam hose, /. The latter con- 
nects with the pipe, J, leading to the boiler. 

When ready to sample, remove the sampler from the 
heater, plunge at once to the bottom of the can of cream 
to be sampled, and remove quickly. While holding the 
composite sample jar in the left hand, discharge the con- 
tents of the sampler into it by pressing down on H with 
the thumb of the hand holding the sampler. Owing to 
the heated condition of the sampler, the cream discharges 
instantly and, what is equally important, all of it dis- 
charges. 

The sampler is accurate, quick, convenient and simple, 
and makes the sampling of heavy, rich cream, or thick, 
sour cream, no more difficult than that of milk. 



164 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

The McKay sampler can also be heated in the tin heater 
and is probably to be preferred to the modified Scovell 
sample for sampling extremely cold or extremely rich 
cream. 

Scovell Sampler and Milk Thief. These samplers 
are illustrated and described on page 52. 

SAMPLING AND WEIGHING AT THE EARM. 

In addition to the regular supply of empty, sterile 
cream cans, the cream gatherer should be provided with 
a pair of scales, a cream pail, tubes or jars for carrying 
the cream samples, a cream stirrer, and a sampling tube 
or a small sample dipper. The dipper may be used when 
the samples are tested after each delivery. Where com- 
posite samples are taken the sampling tube must be used 
owing to the daily variation in the quantity and quality 
of cream. 

Thoroughly mix the cream before taking the sample. 
This is best accomplished by pouring it several times from 
one vessel to another. If the cream is lumpy, the lumps 
should be broken up with the stirrer. Immediately after 
mixing the cream, a sample is taken and placed in the 
patron's sample tube or jar. The receptacle should be 
plainly numbered and provided with a tight-fitting cover. 
The cream is then weighed and poured into the regular 
supply cans. 

The samples should be carefully placed in a carrying 
case where they are protected from breakage and outside 
temperatures. Promptly on arrival at the creamery the 
samples are emptied into their respective composite sample 
jars, if the composite method of testing is followed. 

Where the cream is too thick for satisfactory sampling 



GATHERED CREAM 165 

with the sampling tubes, a proportionate amount of cream 
may be measured by putting into a graduated tube, with 
a dipper, say one c.c. of cream for every pound of cream 
furnished. 

SAMPLING AND WEIGHING AT THE CREAMERY. 

There are several methods of weighing and sampling 
in vogue at the present time. One is to sample and 
weigh the cream in the cans in which it is delivered. In 
this case the sample is taken with a dipper or sampling 
tube after the cream has been thoroughly mixed with a 
stirrer. The cream is then weighed and emptied directly 
into the cream vat or into a receiving can. From the 
latter it may be conducted into the cream vat by gravity 
or by means of a pump. A better method of handling the 
cream is to pour it from one can to another several times 
before sampling. This insures better mixing than is pos- 
sible with the stirrer alone. But even where the cream 
is poured, the stirrer may be of value in supplementing 
the mixing, especially in case the cream is lumpy. Weigh 
the cream in the delivery can or the receiving can and 
run it by gravity into the cream vat. 

In case composite samples are made, an aliquot portion 
of cream must be taken by means of one of the sampling 
tubes. And where the cream is not thoroughly mixed be- 
fore sampling, the Scovell, McKay, or Michels sampler 
is preferred. 

All cream samplers except the Michels must be rinsed 
in hot water after each sampling. This is especially im- 
portant when sampling heavy cream. 

Where the cream is weighed in the cans, the weight of 
the empty can should be permanently marked upon it. 



166 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

TESTING CREAM. 

Frequency of Testing. Where the cream Is deHvered 
to the creamery in good condition, composite samples may 
he taken in the same manner as with milk. Usually, how- 
ever, where a great deal of hand separator cream is 
handled, some of it is delivered in too bad condition for 
composite sampling. In this case it becomes necessary to 
test the cream as often as it is delivered. 

At present in many of the larger and in some of the 
smaller creameries, a test is made of each delivery of 
cream. This practice insures the most satisfactory tests, 
l)ut requires more work than where composite samples 
are taken. On this account a great deal of cream is still 
tested by the latter method. 

Where composite samples are made, these are preferably 
tested once a week and should never be tested less than 
twice a month. See chapter on "Composite Sampling." 

Necessity of Weighing Cream. Accurate tests of 
cream can not be secured by measuring the sample into 
the bottle as is done in the case of milk. The reason for 
this is that the weight of cream varies with its richness. 
The richer the cream the less it weighs per unit volume. 
This is illustrated in the following table by Farrington 
andWoll: 



GATHERED CREAM 



167 



Weight of fresh separator cream cleHvered by a 17.6 c.c. 

pipette. 



Per cent of fat 


specific gravity 


Weight of cream 


in cream. 


(weighed.) 


in grams. 


10 


1.023 


17.9 


15 


1.012 


17.7 


20 


1.008 


17.3 


25 


1.002 


17.2 


30 


.996 


17.0 


35 


.980 


16.4 


40 


:966 


16.3 


45 


.950 


16.2 


50 


.947 


15.8 



These figures plainly show that justice can not be done 
to patrons where cream is sampled with a 17.6 c.c. 
pipette. Cream is therefore always weighed on a cream 
scales, the amount necessary for a full sample being 
eighteen grams. 
Cream Bottles and Their Uses. Numerous styles of 

cream bottles are now 
upon the market. They 
range in length from six 
to nine inches with necks 
graduated from 30 to 
55%. The nine-inch 
bottles are graduated 
. from 50 to 55% and re- 
quire special testers on 
account of their unusual 
length. These long- 
Fig. 36.— Torsion cream scales. necked bottles have the 
advantage of permitting' the use of a full sample of 
cream which insures a more accurate reading than is pos- 
sible where only half a sample of cream is put in an 




168 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



ordinary cream bottle, or where shorter wide-mouthed 
50% bottles are used. 




Fig. 37.— Cream scales. 



A cream bottle commonly used is the Winton 30% 
bottle, shown in Fig. 3. With this bottle only 
half a sample (9 grams) of rich cream can 
be used. To the half sample of cream a scant 
half-measure of acid is added, and the testing 
finished in the usual way. What is better, 
however, is to add to the nine grams of cream 
approximately 9 c.c. of water and then use 
the full amount of acid. Obviously where only 
half a sample of cream is used in the ordinary 
bottle, the test must be multiplied by 2 to get 
the correct reading. 

Lately, a small bore cream bottle (Fig. 38) 

has been placed upon the market in which only 

half a sample of cream is used, but which gives 

a reading for a full sample. This does away 

Pig. saline with multiplying tests by 2 when only half a 




gram cream 
bottle. 



GATHERED CREAM 169 

sample is used, and reduces the error in reading by one-« 
half. The small bore of the neck also lessens any error in 
reading the test. It should be stated that the bottle is too 
small to admit of adding 9 c.c. of water and the full 
amount of acid. Furthermore the bottles used by the 
author were rather difficult to read owing to the small- 
ness of the figures and marks upon the neck. 

Preparing the Sample. Before weighing the cream on 
the balance, care should be taken to thoroughly mix the 
sample by pouring and repouring a few times. Should 
the samples show any dried or churned cream, the sample 
jars must be placed in water at a temperature of about 
110° F. until the lumps of cream or butter have melted. 
When this is done the sample for the test bottle must be 
taken instantly after mixing, as the melted fat separates 
very quickly. In general, warming the sample jars some- 
what before sampling by placing them in warm water 
will facilitate the mixing and sampling of the cream. 

Making and Reading Cream Tests. The different 
steps in testing cream are essentially the same as in testing 
milk. However, as already stated, the cream must be 
weighed and tested in a special bottle. Furthermore, 
special precautions must be used in reading the test. 

It is well known that reading the extremes of the fat 
column gives too high a reading. This error is due to 
the meniscus at the top of the fat column, the size of 
which varies with the width of the neck. Farrington 
and Woll recommend reading from the lowest extremity 
of the fat column to the bottom of the upper meniscus. 
This is the method commonly employed in reading tests. 
Eckles and Wayman recommend removing the meniscus 
by addine a small quantity of amyl alcohol (colored red) 



170 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

to the top of the fat column. This method has been 
carefully tested by the author and has been found satis- 
factory. 

Farrington suggests adding a few drops of fat-saturated 
alcohol to the top of the fat as a means of removing the 
meniscus. Ordinary alcohol has a solvent action on butter- 
fat, hence the necessity of using fat-saturated alcohol. 

The fat readings should be made at a temperature of 
140° F. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

I^OCATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES. 

The creamery industry has had a marvelous growth 
during the past decade and at no time in its history has 
it been in a more healthy, flourishing condition than 
it is at the present time. This growth has been the result 
of a gradual change in agricultural methods, necessitated 
chiefly by the need of conserving the fertility of lands now 
under cultivation. As our lands become older, an agri- 
cultural practice that will have for one of its objects the 
preservation and restoration of soil fertility, must grow 
more and more imperative. We have, therefore, much 
assurance that the creamery industry will flourish in the 
future as it has in the past, and that the creamery has 
come to stay as a permanent institution. The same care 
and attention should therefore be given to the location 
and construction of creameries that is now given to our 
schools, churches, and other institutions. 

Location of Creamery. In deciding upon the location 
of a creamery, we should carefully consider the following 
points: (i) the number of cows in the community; (2) 
the slope necessary to insure good drainage ; (3) the center 
of the milk producing territory; and (4) the supply of 
pure water. 

(i.) Before building a creamery we must first ascer- 
tain the number of cows available for its support. There 
should be an assurance of not less than 400 cows in a 
radius of five miles of the creamery to start with. Too 

171 



172 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

frequently creamery "promoters" are the cause of cream- 
ery failures because the creamery has been placed in a 
territory containing too few cows. 

(2.) The ground upon which the creamery stands 
should slope at least one foot in ten. This amount of slope 
is necessary for two reasons : (a) to secure sufficient drain- 
age, and (b) to permit the construction of a creamery 
with an ideal interior and exterior arrangement, such as 
will do away with extra can lifting, and extra pumps and 
piping. 

(3.) Locations far removed from railroad stations are 
undesirable. It makes transportation to and from the 
station too expensive. Besides, during the summer the 
butter is liable to get too warm before it reaches a refrig- 
erator car. 

(4.) Pure water is absolutely indispensable to the suc- 
cess of a creamery. Experiments have abundantly demon- 
strated that butter washed with impure water will be 
inferior in flavor and particularly poor in keeping quality. 

Fireproof Creamery. The best and most permanent 
creameries are constructed of brick or hollow concrete 
blocks. They are the most sanitary and cheapest in the 
long run. The original cost may be somewhat greater 
than that of a frame building but the insurance and re- 
pairs are considerable less. A brick or concrete block 
creamery with galvanized iron roof, cement floors, and the 
walls partly of cement, is practically fire proof. Fires 
occur too frequently in creameries to permit their con- 
struction without regard to protection against fire. In- 
deed scarcely a week passes but that from one to three 
creameries are burned to the ground. In Denmark, the 
great butter producing country, the creameries are nearly 
all constructed of brick. 



CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES 173 

A good solid concrete or stone foundation adds much 
to the durabihty of a creamery building. 

It matters not whether the creamery is constructed of 
wood or brick, a shingle roof is undesirable because of 
the danger from fire. Twenty-six gage galvanized iron, 
when properly laid, will make a cheap and very durable 
roof. The roofing should be laid with standing seams to 
allow for expansion and contraction of the material. To 
protect the under side of the roof from moisture and 
corroding gases it is desirable to lay the galvanized iron 
on acid and waterproof paper. 

Slate makes the neatest and most durable roof but it is 
rather expensive. 

Creamery Dimensions. These should be such as 
not to crowd the machinery, nor to leave a great deal of 
unnecessary space. Where the machinery and vats are 
placed too close together they cannot be conveniently 
cleaned and attended to. On the other hand, too much 
space means extra steps, extra pipes and conductors, and 
added cost to the creamery, to say nothing of the addi- 
tional cleaning. 

Plan of Creamery i There are two general plans upon 
which creameries have been constructed in the past. One 
is known as the gravity plan, the other as the one floor 
plan. In the gravity plan the milk flows by gravity from 
the intake to the separator, thus dispensing with the use 
of a milk pump. It necessitates, however, two floors on 
a different level; one for the receiving vat, the other, 
five feet lower, for separators and cream vats. In the 
one floor plan all vats and machinery stand on one floor, 
the milk being forced into the separators by means of 
a pump. 



174 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



The chief objection to the gravity plan is that it neces- 
sitates the chmbing of high steps, which makes going 
from one floor to the other difficult and tiresome. Yet, 
not many years ago, such steps were preferable to the un- 




Sf<IM MILK 



p/tsTcufizeR 






iArrei>M£OiA te 



a 



oi 
1^ 



JO'x33 



S.5 



/€£ STORAGE- 
/6X33- 



L 



-o 



ffl 



^1 



7 






£-/s/G/NE ROOM 
/SX^O' 



O/L. BARRELS 



lOOi 



storage: 

/OX20' 



Fig. 39.— Floor plan of cotLbiued gaibered cream and whole milk creamery. 



srmitary milk pumps then in use for clcvnting the milk 
into the separators. With the vanishing of the old un- 



CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMERIES 175 

cleanable milk pumps and with the advent of pumps for 
forcing- cream into the churn, vanish the chief objec- 
tions that have always been raised against the one floor 
creamery. Our present sanitary milk pumps can be 
cleaned as readily and thoroughly as our milk and cream 
vats. 

Fig. 39 illustrates a floor plan of a combined gathered 
cream and whole milk creamery. Only the intake in this 
plan is elevated so as to permit the milk and cream to 
flow by gravity into the receiving vats. 

Some preter to dispense with the cream can shown in 
the intake. In such cases the cream receiving vat is placed 
against the intake and the cream is conducted into it by 
means of a wide spout running through the intake par- 
tition, in a manner similar to dumping grain at grain 
elevators. 

The ceiling in the storage room should be six feet 
high, allowing just one tier of salt barrels to be stored 
there. The space above is utilized for storing butter 
tubs. The engine room is ceiled and the space above 
utilized for a hot water tank and butter tub storage. The 
water and steam gauges should be placed in the make 
room next to the boiler room where they can be observed 
from all points of the creamery. 

In regard to the cold water tank, it is well to remem- 
ber to locate this where it is easily accessible. This tank 
should be frequently cleaned, a matter whose importance 
is too often underrated by buttermakers. Both the hot 
water and cold water tanks should have overflow pipes 
about twice the size of the inlet pipes to prevent slop 
and damage from overflowing tanks. 

Location of Refrigerator and Ice House. It is a 



176 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

great mistake to have the ice house detached from the 
creamery. Where this is the case much unnecessary labor 
has to be performed in fihing the refrigerator. The ice 
house and refrigerator should adjoin with only a well 
built wall between them. 

Intake for Whole Milk Creamery. Nowhere in the 
creamery can so much labor be economized as in the in- 
take when properly constructed. The author can state 
from years of experience at the intake, handling from 
10,000 to 15,000 pounds of milk daily, that the work in a 
poor intake is by far the hardest that falls to the lot of 
the butter maker. Where cans weighing from 100 to 
200 pounds have to be raised one or two feet to get them 
from the wagon onto the platform, and then three feet 
more to get them emptied into the weigh can, the amount 
of work necessary in w^eighing in 15,000 pounds of milk 
is easily imagined. Intakes of this type are numerous. 

On the other hand, an intake that dispenses with all 
this can lifthig ofifers comparatively easy work. Fig. 40 
illustrates such an intake. The top of the wagon box 
is on a IgyqI with the platform. The can after reach- 
ing the platform is dumped without practically any lifting. 
When ten gallon cans are used (and these are always 
preferred) and a moderately strong boy draws the milk, 
the butter maker need not step upon the platform at 
all. He smells of every can before it is dumped, weighs 
and samples the milk, and distributes the skimmilk and 
buttermilk. Any creamery that is located where there 
is a moderate slope can have an intake like that here 
referred to with the little extra cost of the platform. 

Construction of Floor. Construct a six-inch concrete 
floor upon a well tamped foundation consisting of gravel, 



CONSTRUCTION Of CREAMlilunS 



111 



cobble stones and cinders. These materials afford good 
drainage and thus prevent the cold and dampness usually 
associated with concrete floors. In preparing the concrete 
for the floor use one part cement, two parts clean, coarse 
sand and four parts gravel or crushed stone. Finish with 
one part cement and one part sand. 

All parts of the floor should slope toward the drain in 
the center. Round out the corners and edges of the floor 
with concrete to make them more easily cleanable. 





tSto. 



=soU 



SCALE-fEET 



Fig. 40.— Section through whole milk creamery. 



To provide insulation for the concrete floor of the re- 
frigerator, asbestos, hollow brick or tile is used as shown 
in Fig. 42, p. 185. The asbestos must be protected from 
moisture by covering both sides with waterproof paper. 

Construction of Walls and Ceiling. The inside of 
the brick or block walls are preferably finished with cement 
plaster as follows : First apply about one inch of cement 
plaster, consisting of one part cement, three parts clean, 
coarse sand, and one part slaked lime paste. Follow this 
with a finish consisting of one part cement and one pait 
sand and trowel off as smoothly as possible. The appear- 
ance of a wall thus constructed is much improved by coat- 
12 



178 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



ing it with a cement filler which produces a uniform, 
grayish color. 

The ceiling should be built of the best ceiling lumber 
and must be kept well painted. 

Sewerage i Efifective sewerage must be provided at 
the time the floor is laid. A bell trap (Fig. 41) should be 
placed in the center of each room and carefully connected 
with the sewer. Conduct the sewage far enough away to 
keep its odors a safe distance from the creamery. See 
chapter XX. 

Ventilation. Hitherto this subject has received 
little or no attention whatever from creamery builders. 

The influence of foul, 
moist air upon the qual- 
ity of the butter and the 
general health of the 
buttermaker is too little 
appreciated. We hear 
much about that ' 'pecu- 
liar creamery odor" 
which is simply an- 
Fig. 4i.-Beiitrap. Q^her expression for 

the foul, moist, stifling air that prevails in a great many 
of our creameries. Almost daily we learn of butter 
makers who are forced into retirement or compelled to 
take up other lines of work because of lung trouble, 
rheumatism, or general ill health. Unsanitary creamery 
conditions are held accountable. 

Ventilating shafts, extending from the creamery room 
to the top of the building where they end in cupolas, are 
serviceable but inadequate for the best ventilation. The 
most effective ventilator with which the author is ac- 




CONSTRUCTION Of CREAMERIES 179 

quainted is installed in the Michigan Dairy School. This 
ventilator consists of a galvanized iron pipe, fifteen inches 
in diameter, which is suspended from the ceiling. The pipe 
starts from the middle of the creamery room, where it 
is expanded into a cowl five feet in diameter, and is 
placed right up against the ceiling. It ends in a fan or 
blower four feet in diameter which is located in the boiler 
room. Here the blower connects with a chimney extend- 
ing from the floor through the roof of the building. The 
fan is so run that it will suck the air from the creamery 
room into the ventilating pipe whence it is discharged 
into the chimney. With a speed of two hundred revolu- 
tions per minute the air of an ordinary creamery room 
can be changed six to eight times per hour. Less than 
one horse power is required to run the fan. 

Sucking the air out of the room will, of course, neces- 
sitate an inlet of air from the outside. A two-inch screen 
under a few windows will answer this purpose very well. 

The cost of pipes and blower will not exceed $125, an 
amount that should be no consideration where the health 
of the butter maker and the quality of the butter are at 
stake. 

Bath Room. Some, no doubt, will look upon a bath 
room as a novelty and luxury rather than as a neces- 
sary adjunct to the creamery. But where everything 
needs to be kept so scrupulously clean, it must be im- 
portant for the butter maker and his assistants to keep 
themselves clean also. The sweaty smell of the butter 
maker can certainly have no favorable effect upon his 
produce, so sensitive to all odors, nor upon his own pre- 
cious health. A light daily bath after the work is done 
can not fail to add much to the comfort and health of the 



180 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

butter maker and his helpers. The bath room will add to 
the sanitary aspect of the whole creamery and will teach 
the patrons an object lesson in personal cleanliness in the 
care and handling of their milk. 

Where a septic tank is used there is no reason why 
the bath room should not be equipped with a water closet. 
This should be done both as a matter of sanitation and 
convenience. 

Heating of Creamery. Creameries should be heated 
by steam, not with stoves. Either the exhaust steam 
from the engine or steam taken directly from the boiler 
may be used for this purpose. The heating pipes should be 
so arranged that either may be used when desired. 

Where the exhaust steam is used to heat water for the 
boiler and for washing, it may be best to heat the build- 
ing with steam taken directly from the boiler. 

A very satisfactory method of piping is the following: 
Run one and one-half inch pipes from the boiler to within 
two feet of the floor, and close to the walls of the creamery 
room. The pipes should pass all around the creamery 
room and end in a steam trap which discharges the con- 
densed steam into a hot well located near the injector, 
so that the hot water may readily be drawn into the boiler. 
The heating pipes must all slope towards this well. Where 
the boiler floor is lower than the creamery floor an oil 
barrel sawed in two may be made to serve the purpose 
of a hot well. 

A reducing valve should be placed near the boiler so 
that any amount of pressure may be carried in the heat- 
ing pipes. With a good valve of this kind a pressure 
as low as one pound may be carried when the boiler 
pressure varies from twenty to fifty pounds. 



CONSTRUCTION OF CREAMBRIES 181 

The cost of steam trap and reducing valve should not 
exceed $15. 

Screening. Where proper sanitation is expected it is 
absolutely necessary to guard against flies, and this can 
easily be done by screening all doors and windows. Flies 
are a prolific source of milk contamination and must 
therefore be rigidly excluded from the creamery. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
ICE, ice: house and refrigerator. 

ICE. 

Necessity of Ice. Where there is no equipment for 
mechanical refrigeration, an abundant supply of ice be- 
comes indispensable in making the best quality of butter. 
A low refrigerator temperature can not be maintained 
without the use of a great deal of ice. The increased use 
of starters and pasteurizers also demands increasingly 
large supplies of ice. 

Cooling Power of Ice. A great deal of cooling can 
be done with a comparatively small amount of ice. This 
is due to the latent or ''hidden" cold in ice. Thus to 
convert one pound of ice at 32° F. into water at the same 
temperature requires 142 units of heat, or, in other words, 
enough cold is given out to reduce the temperature of 
142 pounds of water one degree Fahr. 

Source of Ice. Always select the cleanest ice available. 
Lake ice usually proves very satisfactory. Where the 
source of ice is at too great a distance from the dairy, 
an artificial pond should be made upon ground with a 
reasonably impervious subsoil and with a natural con- 
cave formation. If such a piece of ground is flooded 
with water during the coldest weather, an ample supply 
of ice will be available in a very short time. 

Cost of Making Ice. Where ice can be obtained 
within a reasonable distance, the cost of cutting, hauling 
and packing should not exceed one dollar per ton. 

182 



NATURAL REFRIGERATION 183 

icB house:. 

Location. The Ice house should be joined to the 
creamery, preferably at the north end, which affords the 
greatest protection from the sun. Where the ice house 
is detached from the creamery, too much unnecessary 
labor must be performed in filling the refrigerator. See 
Fig- 39. page 174. 

Size of Ice House. The size of the ice house will 
depend, of course, upon the amount of ice to be used. 
When this has been determined, calculate the necessary 
storage space by allowing 57.5 pounds for every cubic 
foot of ice. For a creamery making on an average 1,000 
pounds of butter a day, an ice house 16 feet high, 32 
feet long and 16 feet wide will usually be found adequate. 
It should be remembered, however, that the amount of 
ice necessary to make a given amount of butter Vv^ill 
depend, to no small extent, upon the degree of insula- 
tion of ice house and refrigerator and the amount used 
for cooling cream, making ice cream, selling cream, etc. 

Construction of Ice House. To keep ice satisfactorily 
three things are necessary, (i) good drainage at the bot- 
tom, (2) good insulation, and (3) abundant ventilation 
at the top. 

Good drainage and insulation at the bottom can be 
secured by laying an eight-inch foundation of stones and 
gravel and on top of this six inches of cinders, the whole 
being underlaid with drain tile. One foot of sawdust 
should be packed upon the cinders and the ice laid directly 
upon the sawdust. 

Satisfactory walls are secured by using matched boards 
on the outside of the studs and common rough boards on 



184 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

the inside, leaving the space between the studs empty. 
The ice should be separated from the walls by one foot of 
sawdust. 

Solid foundation walls must be provided to prevent the 
entrance of air along the base. 

The space between the sawdust covering on top of 
the ice and the roof should be left clear. Openings in the 
gable ends as well as one or two ventilating shafts pro- 
jecting through the roof, should be provided to insure a 
free circulation of air under the roof. This will not only 
remove the hot air which naturally gathers beneath the 
roof, but will aid in drying the sawdust. 

The ice must be packed solidly, using no sawdust 
except at the sides and bottom of the ice house and on 
top of the ice when the filling is completed. At least one 
foot of sawdust must be packed on top of the ice. 

As a matter of convenience in filling and emptying the 
ice house, doors should be provided in sections from the 
sill to the gable at one end of the building. 

REFRIGERATOR. 

Location. When convenience in filling is desired, the 
refrigerator should be built in a corner of the ice house, 
as shown in Fig. 39. 

Size. This will depend, of course, upon the amount 
of butter made. For a creamery making from 800 to 
1,000 pounds of butter a day a refrigerator 8 to 10 feet 
wide by 10 feet long will be found large enough. 

Refrigerator With Ice Overhead. From the stand- 
point of efficiency, the ice should be placed overhead, 
and not at the end or sides of the refrigerator as is com- 
monly done. With ice placed overhead it is possible to 



NATURAL REPRIGBRATION 



185 







4^. 



Fig. 42 —Refrigerator with ice overhead. 



186 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

secure a drier and cooler air. This method of refrigera- 
tion is illustrated in Fig. 42. The entire inside of this 
refrigerator is finished with cement plaster making it both 
durable and sanitary. Two dead air spaces are provided : 
a three-quarter-inch space between the concrete and the 
boards to which the wire lathing is fastened and a four- 
inch space between the 2x4-inch studding. These two 
spaces together with the four layers of paper used, pro- 
vide a high degree of insulation. 

The concrete floor of the refrigerator is constructed 
upon a foundation of twelve inches of cinders, overlaid 
with hollow brick, tile, or asbestos wrapped in water- 
proof paper. This construction provides the necessary 
insulation. 

The floor of the ice chamber is built of 2x4-inch stud- 
ding running the length of the refrigerator. These studs 
are laid about three inches apart to allow the water from 
the melting ice to drip through. Below the ice chamber 
is a shallow pan, which catches the drip from the ice 
and conducts it into the sewer. The pan is supported by 
means of two 2x4-inch studs running the full length of 
the ice chamber. Both ends of the studs are provided 
with hooks by means of which the pan is readily attached 
to, and detached from, the ice chamber. This method of 
attachment is necessary to permit the easy removal of the 
pan for cleaning. 

The refrigerator must be provided with a door having 
at least two dead-air spaces and two flanges which fit 
snugly into the frame of the refrigerator. 

The ice is admitted to the ice chamber through a door 
in the rear end of the refrigerator. 

Refrigerator With Ice at End. This style of refrig- 



NATURAL RBFRIGURATION 



187 



erator, while less efficient than that using ice overhead, 
is commonly preferred because of the greater ease of 
filling the ice chamber. Fig 43 illustrates the general 
plan of construction. The details as to floor and wall 
construction are the same as those shown in Fig. 42. 




Fig. 43.— Refrigerator with ice box at end. 

Refrigerator Cooled with Ammonia. Such a re- 
frigerator may be constructed in the same way as the one 
described in the preceding pages, with the exception 
of the ice chamber. In place of this a brine tank and 
refrigerator coils are used as shown in Fig. 52, page 206. 
For further particulars regarding this method of refrig- 
eration, see chapter on Mechanical Refrigeration. 



CHAPTER XX. 



SEWAGK DISPOSAL. 



To secure a high degree of sanitation in and about 
the creamery it is necessary to see that proper disposal 
is made of the sewage from both the creamery and the 
dwelHng of the buttermaker. Where the latter is situated 
close to the creamery its surroundings may do about as 
much harm as those of the creamery itself. 

With open privies and the careless dumping of kitchen 
slops near the dwelling, we have a double means of en- 
dangering the creamery. If the ground near the dwelling 
and privy slopes in the direction of the water supply, the 
latter is likely to become contaminated through seepage in 
the manner indicated in Fig. 69. In addition to this there 
is the danger of flies carrying various kinds of bacteria 
from these places to the creamery. Flies not only carry 
the obnoxious, putrefactive species, but too often also 
the deadly pathogenic kinds, such as cause typhoid fever, 
to say nothing of the offensive excrementitious matter 
conveyed in this manner. 

Obviously the accumulation of sewage about the cream- 
ery itself is attended by even greater dangers than those 
arising from the unsanitary surroundings of the dwelling. 
Moreover there is certain to be trouble also from bad 
odors. 

SEPTIC TANK. 

The best means of taking care of the sewage from 

188 



SBWAGB DISPOSAL 



189 



both the creamery and the dwelling is to run it into a septic 
tank (see Fig. 44, designed by the author) and from 
this into a net-work of tile laid underground wher-e it 
will irrigate and fertilize the soil. 

Object of Septic Tank. The main purpose of the 
tank, as its name indicates, is to thoroughly decompose 
all organic matter entering it. This is accomplished by 
numerous species of bacteria, and the tank may be 
properly designated as a germ incubator. Where the 




Fig. 44.— Septic Tank. 

sewage is emptied into underground tile, the tank also 
serves as a storage, discharging its contents intermittently. 
This is necessary to force the liquid to all points of the 
system and to allow time for each discharge to soak away 
before the appearance of the next. 

Construction of Tank. The general plan of construc- 
tion is illustrated in Figs. 44 and 45. The tank is located 
in the ground with the top within a foot or two of the 
surface. For durability it is preferably constructed of 
brick, stone or concrete. The tank is so constructed as to 
12 



190 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 





,y,. 




J". ► 








one 


f... 


;« 


^.< 






























/ 






H«PC,t 





retain all sediment and floating material, since the dis- 
charges permit the withdrawal of the liquid from near the 
middle of the tank only. This is one of the main features 
of the tank. All inorganic matter entering the tank will 
gradually settle and, of course, remain in it. Some of 
the organic matter tends to settle during the first 24 hours, 

after which it comes to the 
surface to be gradually 
wasted away by the action 
of bacteria. This wasting 
away is naturally very 
slow, and since the slowly 
gathering organic matter 
nearly all remains in the 
first section of the tank, 
this must be large enough 
to provide for a consider- 
able accumulation of it. 

The tank should be built air tight, except in two places. 
At the right is an air inlet, consisting of a goose-neck 
pipe, which renders the vent at the top more effective. 
This vent consists of a long shaft extending beyond the 
top of the dairy, thus carrying of¥ the foul gases caused 
by the decomposition of the material within. One-inch 
gas pipe, properly fastened, will serve as a satisfactory 
vent. 

In order to aflford communication of sections A and C 
with the vent, the two partitions should not be built 
quite as high as the tank. There should be at least one 
inch space between the top of the partitions and the cover. 
A i}4-inch gas pipe should be laid over the tank 
through which the water from the cooler and vats may 
be discharged directly into the drain. This water 



Fig. 45.— Cross Section of Septic 
Tank. 



SnWAGB DISPOSAL 191 

requires no purification and, if conducted through the 
tank, would necessitate one of too large dimensions. 
Moreover, the large amount of cold water needed for 
cooling milk and cream would cool the contents of the 
tank too much for a rapid decomposition of the material 
within. 

Size of Tank. This must necessarily depend upon the 
amount of sewage run into it. In general it should have 
capacity sufficient to hold all of one day's waste in the 
smallest section (C). It will be noticed from the cut 
that section A is considerably larger than either of the 
other two. The reason for this is that nearly all of the 
inorganic matter remains in the bottom of this part of the 
tank, while the organic matter, as already stated, gradu- 
ally accumulates at the surface in this section, in spite 
of constant decomposition. Where the tank receives the 
sewage from both the dairy and the dwelling, a tank 
12 feet square by 4>^ feet deep will be large enough, 
provided the water used for cooling is not run into it. 
It is well to remember, however, that the larger the tank 
used the better the results that may be expected from it. 

Flow of Sewage Through Tank. Four-inch tile, 
carefully laid, may be used to conduct the sewage from the 
creamery to the tank. A trap is placed near the creamery 
to shut ofif the odors coming from the drain. At the 
point at which the sewage enters the tank it is desirable 
to attach an elbow with an arm sufficiently long to keep 
the lower end always in the sewage. This prevents un- 
due mixing of the incoming sewage with that already 
in the tank, a matter of importance in the successful 
operation of the tank. 

When the sewage in section A has reached the dotted 
line, it begins to discharge into section B through three- 



192 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

inch gas pipe as shown in Fig. 45. The Hquid is with- 
drawn from a point near the middle of the tank as in- 
dicated by the discharge pipes. The eight-inch space 
above the discharge permits the accumulation of organic 
matter. The discharge from 'B into C is the same as 
that from A into B ; but the discharge pipes are of neces- 
sity lower by an amount indicated by the dotted lines. 
Compartment C discharges intermittently by means of 
an automatic syphon. 

The sewage becomes gradually purified in its passage 
through the tank, and as it flows from the last section 
it is nearly as clear as water, but has a slightly sour odor, 
which it seems to retain and which is in no way objection- 
able. The purified sewage has been kept for weeks with 
no sign of the development of putrefactive odors. 

The discharges should be arranged as shown in Fig. 
45- This arrangement will cause the least mixing of old 
and new sewage. There is no discharge from A into 'B 
until the second day's sewage flows into A. Similarly 
there is no discharge from B into C until the second 
discharge into B, etc. The sewage, therefore, requires 
from three to four days in its passage through the tank. 

Cost of Septic Tank. A double partition tank, 12 
feet square and 43^2 feet deep, constructed of concrete 
consisting of one part cement, two parts sand and four 
parts gravel, will cost approximately $50.00 when the 
walls are five inches thick. 

SEWAGE DISPOSAL FROM DWELLING. 

The open privy and the cesspool of kitchen slops are 
objectionable not only in so far as they affect the cream- 
ery, but also in that they constitute a source of danger 
to the members of the family in ways entirely discon- 
nected with the milk supply. With the creamery 



SEWAGE DISPOSAL 193 

already equipped with power to pump and elevate water, 
there is apparently no reason why the dwelling should 
not be equipped with a water closet. And with a water 
closet in the house there would be practically no expense 
connected with the disposal of the kitchen waste, since 
this would be discharged directly into the soil pipe con- 
nected with the closet. What a convenience such an 
equipment would afford to the housewife and members of 
the family! 

If the dwelling and creamery are reasonably close 
together, one septic tank will answer for both. In such 
a case the tank is located between the two buildings. 
Where a great distance separates the buildings, a tank 
is provided for each and the outlets are brought together 
as near the tank as possible to save extra expense of tile. 

SUBSURFACE IRRIGATION. 

W^hile the septic tank sufficiently decomposes the 
organic matter to leave the sewage from the tank without 
offensive odors; it is best to run the discharge into a 
system of underground tile where it will serve as a fer- 
tilizer and as an irrigating agent. The tile should be 
laid below the frost line. In loose soils one foot of tile 
per gallon of sewage will answer. Clayey soils require 
two to three times this amount. 

Three-inch agricultural drain tile are best adapted for 
drainage work of this kind, the tile being laid with open 
joints and with a slope of three or four inches per hundred 
feet. 

It is important that this subsurface irrigating system 
be located where there is no seepage into the water supply. 
In places where there is no danger from frost it is best 
to lay the tile only about one and one-half feet below the 
surface. 

13 



CHAPTER XXL 

WASHING AND STERILIZING MILK VESSELS. 

Wash Sinks. A matter of importance in washing 
milk vessels is to have the right kind of sinks, three of 
which are needed for the most satisfactory work: One 




Fig. 46.— Wash Sinks. 

for rinsing before washing, one for washing and one for 
final rinsing. 

For convenience the wash sink should be thirty-six 

194 



WASHING AND STERILIZING 



195 



inches long, twelve inches deep, and sixteen inches wide. 
The bottom should be round and two feet from the floor. 
When closer to the floor than this too much stooping is 
required. 





Fig. 48.— Milk Bottle Brush. 
Fig. 47.— A Good Cleaning Brush. 

Galvanized iron furnishes one of the most suitable ma- 
terials for the construction of wash sinks. They should 
be provided with steam and cold water pipes as shown 
in Fig. 46. 

Method of Washing. All vessels should be thor- 
oughly rinsed in 
warm water to re- 
move small residues 
of milk and cream. 
The rinsing is fol- 
lowed by washing 
with moderately hot 
water to which a 
handful of some 
cleaning powder has 
been added. The 
washing should be 
done with brushes 
rather than cloths be- 
cause the bristles en- 
ter into crevices which 




Fig. 49.— BotUe Washer. 



a cloth could not possibly reach. Finally rinse the vessels 
in clean water. 

A bottle washer, like that shown in Fig. 49? saves much 



196 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

labor and does very efficient work. The motive power 
may be either steam or water. 

Where many cans are washed a can washer will be 
found helpful. In cleaning cans it is well to remember 
that water alone will not clean them. The water must be 
reinforced with a brush and some cleaning powder. 

Sterilizing. Vessels that have been washed in the man- 
ner described above may look perfectly clean, but may 
still be far from being free from bacteria. These can be 
destroyed only by exposing the vessels to the boiling 
temperature for some time. 

Cans may be sterilized by inverting them over a steam 
jet several minutes. They should be left inverted some 
time after steaming to drain. 

Open vats, milk tanks, butter printers, etc., can not be 
satisfactorily steamed ; they should be sterilized with boil- 
ing water. 

Dippers, pails, separator parts, bottles, butter ladles, 
packers, etc., are preferably sterilized with steam in a 
closed sterilizer. The author has designed and thoroughly 
tested a cheap, concrete sterilizer which answers the pur- 
pose entirely satisfactorily. This sterilizer should be built 
in a corner of the wash room. 

Sterilizer Designed by the Author. A section through 
this sterilizer is shown in Fig. 50. Essentially, it is a 
rectangular concrete tank with a wooden cover, which is 
lined with zinc. The sides and bottom are five inches 
thick and are built of concrete, which is made up of one 
part cement, two parts of sand, and two parts of coarse 
gravel. A thin coat, consisting of one part cement and 
two parts sand, is used as an inside finish. A piece of 
2x4-inch studding is placed around the top of the tank 



WASHING AND STERILIZING 



197 




Fig. 50.— Cross-section of concrete sterilizer. 



and is secured by six one-half inch iron rods, two feet 
long and embedded in the concrete walls, one being- placed 
at each corner, and one on either side midway between the 
corners. This arrangement not only strengthens the tanl:, 
but also makes the cover fit tighter. 



198 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

The cover consists of two thicknesses of one and one- 
eighth inch tongued and grooved flooring three and one- 
half inches wide. The upper boards run lengthwise and 
the lower crosswise of the tank. . The lower boards fit 
into a shoulder projecting from the base of the 2x4-inch 
studding. The entire inside portion of the cover is cov- 
ered with zinc. To insure additional tightness of the 
cover, a layer of asbestos is placed on top of the 2x4s. 
A heavy weight attached to a one-half inch rope running 
over a pulley fastened to the ceiling, raises the cover and 
holds it open when desired. The cover is strengthened 
by running three pieces of 2x4-inch studding crosswise 
of the tank, one at the middle and one at either end. The 
hinges by which the cover is fastened are attached to 
these 2x4s, as shown in Fig. 50. 

A safety valve, set at ten pounds pressure, is inserted 
through the top of the cover at the most convenient place. 
A bell trap (see Fig. 41) placed in the bottom of the 
sterilizer serves as an outlet for the condensed steam. 

The steam is admitted either through the sides or 
through the bpttom of the sterilizer, and both inlet and 
outlet pipes should be laid in the concrete at the time the 
sterilizer is being built. 

A false, perforated metallic bottom is placed one inch 
from the bottom of the sterilizer, on which all vessels are 
placed in an inverted position. 

The following is an itemized statement of the cost of 
the material used in the construction of this sterilizer, 
whose inside dimensions are: length, 7 1-3 feet; width, 
2 1-4 feet; depth, 2 1-3 feet. 



WASHING AND STERILIZING 199 

2 bbls. of Portland cement $5-20 

20 ft. of 2 X 4 studding 30 

no ft. of 1% tongued and grooved flooring, 3^2 wide 4.40 

4 hinges 40 

5 lbs. nails 20 

6 Yo-'mch iron rods 2^ feet long 1.20 

3 hasps 30 

20 sq. ft. zinc i .75 

Ball and lever safety-valve i.oo 

3 pounds sheet asbestos 30 

Total $1 5.05 

Elevated Hot Water Tank. A tank providing hot 
water should be located in or near the boiler room and ele- 
vated so that hot water can be conducted to the churn, but- 
ter printer and vats. A few coils of gas pipes placed in 
the bottom of the tank, through which the exhaust steam 
from the engine can be conducted, will furnish all the 
hot water necessary. This tank should be covered and 
provided with a vent to permit the escape of steam during 
excessive heating of the water within. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

DETECTION OF TAINTED MILK AND CREAM. 

In well regulated creameries the head butter maker 
will usually be found at the intake every morning care- 
fully examining the milk as it arrives at the factory. It 
requires skill and training to detect and properly locate 
the numerous taints to which milk is heir. It also requires 
considerable tact to reform patrons who have been care- 
less in the handling of their milk. The best skill available 
in the creamery should therefore be placed in the intake. 

In the daily examination of milk, defects can usually be 
detected by smelling of it as soon as the cover is re- 
moved from the cans. When, however, milk arrives at 
the creamery at a temperature of 50° F. or below, it 
becomes more difficult to detect taints ; indeed during the 
winter when milk is often received in a partly frozen 
condition, experts may be unable to detect faults which 
become quite prominent when the milk is heated to a 
temperature of 100° F. or above. 

Frequently milk is seeded with undesirable kinds of 
bacteria which have not had time to develop sufficiently 
to manifest themselves at the time the milk is delivered 
to the creamery, but which later in the course of cream 
ripening produce undesirable flavors. It is necessary, 
therefore, in making a thorough examination of milk to 
heat it to a temperature of from 95° to 100° F. and to 
keep it there for some time to permit a vigorous bacterial 
development. Such bacterial development can be carried 
on in what is known as the Wisconsin Curd Test and the 
Gerber fermentation test. 

200 



DETECTION OF TAINTS 201 



WISCONSIN CURD TEST. 



This test originated at the Wisconsin Dairy School. 
The name of the test impHes that the samples of milk- 
to be tested are curded, which is accomplished in a man- 
ner similar to that in which milk is curded for cheese 
making. 

The Wisconsin Curd Test is frequently spoKcn oi as 
"fermentation test," since the process involved consists in 
fermenting the milk by holding it at a temperature at 
which the bacterial fermentations go on most rapidly. 

Apparatus. This consists of one pint cylindrical tin 
cans placed in a tin frame, and of a well insulated box 
made so that the tin frame will nicely slide into it. Added 
to this is a case knife, and a small pipette used to measure 
rennet extract. 

The construction of the box and the position of the cans 
inside is illustrated in Fig. 51. This box consists of 
three-eighths inch lumber, the inside of which is lined with 
a quarter inch thickness of felt. Narrow strips are tacked 
on the felt and tin upon these, the object of the strips 
being to prevent conduction of heat by contact of the tin 
with the felt. The cover of the box is constructed in the 
same way and made to fit tight. This construction makes 
it possible to maintain a nearly constant temperature of 
the samples which are surrounded by water as shown in 
the illustration. 

Making the Test. A curd or fermentation test is made 
at the creamery by selecting from each patron about two- 
thirds of a pint of milk and placing this in the tin pint 
cans after they have been thoroughly sterilized. Each 
pint can should be provided with a sterilized cover which 
is placed upon it as soon as the sample has been taken. 



202 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



The sample cans are next placed in the insulated box 
provided for them. Here they are warmed by adding 
water at a temperature of 103° F. to the box, a tempera- 
ture which should be maintained throughout the whole 



test. 



COVE.P* 




FEUX l_ININa SXRVt=3 OF 

Fig. 51.— Section through curd-test. 

With a sterile thermometer watch the rise in tempera- 
ture until it has reached 86° F. when 10 drops of rennet 
extract are added to each sample and mixed with it for a 
few moments with a sterile case knife. This knife must 
be sterilized for each sample to avoid transferring bacteria 
from one can to another. 

As soon as the milk has curdled it is sliced with the 
case knife to permit the separation of the whey. After 
the whey has been separating for half an hour, the sam- 
ples should be examined for flavor, which can be told far 
better at this stage than is possible by smelling of the milk 
as it arrives at the creamery. 

After the samples have all been carefully examined, 
the whey is poured off at intervals of from twenty to 
forty minutes for not less than eight hours. At the end 



DETECTION OF TAINTS 203 

of this time a mass of curd will be found at the bottom 
of the can in which there has been a vigorous develop- 
ment of bacteria throughout the test. 

If the sample of milk is free from taint, this curd when 
cut with a knife will be perfectly smooth and close. If, 
on the other hand, the sample contains gas germs, these 
in course of eight hours' development will have produced 
enough gas to give the curd an open spongy appearance 
when cut. The openings are usually small and round, 
hence the name "pin holes" has been applied to them in- 
dicating holes the size of a pin's head. 

Whenever, therefore, milk produces a curd that an- 
swers this description it may be taken for granted that it 
contains undesirable bacteria. 

Sometimes the milk may be tainted and yet produce a 
close textured curd, but in such cases the taint can be 
detected by carefully smelling of the curd. 

Precautions. In making a test as above outlined two 
things must constantly be kept in mind: first, that to se- 
cure the desired bacterial development, the temperature of 
the samples must be maintained as nearly as possible at 
98° F., which is accomplished by surrounding them with 
water at a temperature of 103° ; second, that to avoid con- 
taminating one sample with another, the knife used for 
mixing the rennet with the milk and cutting the curd 
must be sterilized for each can. The thermometer used 
must also be sterile. 

The temperature of the samples can easily be main- 
tained by using a well insulated box like that shown in 
Fig. 51. When a common tin box is used it becomes 
necessary to change the water in it about once every half 
hour. 



204 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

ge;rber i^e^rmentation te:st. 

This test is simpler than the Wisconsin Curd Test and 
can be used for both milk and cream. Where milk need 
not be examined specially for gas-producing organisms, 
this test will give as satisfactory results as the curd test. 
The essential difference between the two tests is the elim- 
ination of rennet extract with the Gerber. 

Making the Test. The samples of milk or cream are 
placed in glass tubes which are numbered to correspond 
with the names of the patrons. These tubes are warmed 
in a tin tank containing water whose temperature is main- 
tained at 104° F. throughout the test by placing a lamp 
under the tank. At the end of about six hours the samples 
are examined for flavor, color, taste and consistency. After 
this examination, they are put back into the tank to be re- 
examined after another interval of about six hours. Any 
"off" condition of the milk or cream can usually be told at 
the end of six to twelve hours. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION. 

In warm climates and in localities where ice is not 
obtainable or only so at a high cost, cold may be produced 
by artificial means known as mechanical refrigeration. 
This system of refrigeration is also finding its way into 
creameries that are able to procure ice at a moderate cost 
but which are seeking more satisfactory means of control- 
ling the temperature of their cream, refrigerator, make 
room, etc. 

Refrigerating Machines. There are four kinds of 
machines used for refrigerating purposes : ( i ) vacuum 
machines in which water is used as the refrigerating 
medium; (2) absorption machines in which a liquid of a 
low boiling point is used as the refrigerating medium, the 
vapors being absorbed by water and again separated from 
it by distillation; (3) compression machines which operate 
practically the same as the absorption machines except 
that the vapors in this case are compressed instead of 
absorbed; and (4) mixed absorption and compression ma- 
chines. 

Most of the machines in use at the present time 
belong to the compression type ; the following discussion 
will therefore confine itself strictly to this class of 
machines. 

Principle. The principle employed in mechanical re- 
frigeration is the production of cold by the evaporation 
of liquids which have a low boiling point, like liquid 
ammonia, liquid carbonic acid, ether, etc. 

205 



206 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



n 




RtLFRIckATiNci Room 



A 



Fig. 53.— Showing circulation of ammonia in mechanical refrigeraLioi 



MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION 207 

When a liquid evaporates or changes into the gaseous 
state it absorbs a definite amount of heat called heat of 
vaporization or ''latent" heat. Thus to change water from 
212° F. to steam at 212° F. requires a considerable 
amount of heat which is apparently lost, hence the term 
latent (hidden) heat. 

Ether changes into its gas at a much lower temperature 
than water which is illustrated by its instant evaporation 
when poured upon the hand. The heat of the hand in this 
case is sufficient to cause vaporization and the sensation 
of cold indicates that a certain amount of heat has been 
abstracted from the hand in the process. 

Manifestly for refrigerating purposes a liquid must be 
used that can be evaporated at a very low temperature ; 
for the cold in mechanical refrigeration is produced by 
the evaporation of the liquid in iron pipes, the heat for 
the purpose being absorbed from the room in which the 
pipes are laid. Anhydrous ammonia has thus far proven 
to be the best refrigerant for ordinary refrigeration. 

Anhydrous Ammonia (Refrigerant). This substance 
is a gas at ordinary temperatures but liquifies at 30° F. 
under one atmospheric pressure. In practical refrigera- 
tion the ammonia is liquified at rather high temperatures 
by subjecting it to pressure. The ammonia is alternately 
evaporated and liquified so that it may be used over and 
over again almost indefinitely. 

Circulation of Ammonia. The cycle of operations in 
mechanical refrigeration is as follows : The liquid am- 
monia starts on its course from a liquid receiver, and 
enters the refrigerating coils in which it evaporates, ab- 
sorbing a large amount of heat in the process. By means 
of a compression pump, operated by an engine, the am- 
monia vapors are forced in the condenser coils where the 



208 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

ammonia, under pressure, is again liquified by running 
cold water over the coils. From the condenser coils it 
enters the liquid receiver, thence again on its journey 
through the refrigerating coils. 

The intensity of refrigeration is regulated by an ex- 
pansion valve, which is placed between the liquid receiver 
and the refrigerating coils. This valve may be adjusted 
•so as to admit the desired quantity of liquid ammonia to 
the coils. 

Systems of Refrigeration. There are two ways in 
which the cooling may be accomplished by mechanical 
refrigeration: (i) by evaporating the liquid ammonia 
in a series of pipes placed in the room to be refrigerated ; 
and (2) by evaporating the liquid ammonia in a series of 
coils laid in a tank of brine and forcing the cold brine 
into coils laid in the room to be refrigerated. The former 
is known as the direct expansion system, the latter as the 
indirect expansion or brine system. 

Brine System. In creameries where the machinery is 
run only five or six hours a day the brine system is the 
more satisfactory as it permits the storing of a large 
amount of cold in the brine, which may be drawn upon 
when the machinery is not running. 

The brine tank is preferably located near the ceiling in 
the refrigerator where it will serve practically the same 
purpose as an overhead ice box. In addition to this, the 
refrigerator should contain a coil of direct expansion 
pipes which may be used when extra cold is desired. 

Brine from the above tank may be used for cooling 
cream by conducting it through coils which are movable 
in the cream vat ; it may also be conducted through sta- 
tionary pipes placed in the make room for the purpose 



MECHANICAL REFRIGBRA TlON 



209 



of controlling the temperature during the warm summer 
months. 

The brine is kept circulating by means of a brine piimf. 

Strength of Brine. The brine is usually made from 
common salt (sodium chloride). The stronger the brine 
the lower the temperature at which it will freeze. Its 
strength should be determined by the lowest temperature 
to be carried in the brine tank. The following table from 
Siebel shows the freezing temperature as well as the 
specific heat of brine of different strengths : 



Percentage of salt by weight. 



1 
2 
3 
4 
6 
8 

10 
12 
15 
20 
25 
26 



Pounds of 




salt per 


Freezing 


gallon of 


point (F.). 


solution. 




0.084 


30.5 


0.169 


29.3 


0.256 


27.8 


0.344 


26.6 


0.523 


23.9 


0.708 


21.2 


0.897 


18.7 


1.092 


16.0 


1.389 


12.2 


1.928 


6.1 


2.488 


0.5 


2.610 


-1.1 



Specific 
heat. 



.992 
.9S4 
.976 
.968 
.946 
.919 
.892 
.874 
.855 
.829 
.783 
.771 



The fact that the specific heat grows less as the brine 
becomes stronger shows it to be wise not to have the 
solution stronger than necessary, because the less the 
specific heat the less heat a given amount of brine is able 
to take up. 

Refrigerating Capacity. When speaking of a machine 
of one ton refrigerating capacity, we mean that it will 
produce, in the course of twenty-four hours, the amount 
of cold that would be given off by one ton of ice at 32° F. 

14 



210 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

melting into water at the same temperature. Its actual 
ice making capacity is usually about 50% less. 

Size of Compressor. In a moderately well insulated 
(freamery handling from twenty to twenty-five thousand 
pounds of milk daily, a four-ton compressor will be large 
enough. With a compressor of this size the machinery 
will not have to be run more than five or six hours a day. 
If the machinery is run longer than this a smaller com- 
pressor will do the work. 

Power Required to Operate. The power required per 
ton of refrigeration is less the larger the machine. With 
a four-ton compressor the power required is from two to 
two and one-half horse power per ton of refrigerating 
capacity in twenty-four hours. 

Refrigerating Pipes. The refrigerating pipes vary 
from one to two inches in diameter. With moderately 
good insulation it is estimated that by the direct expansion 
system one running foot of two-inch piping will keep a 
room of forty cubic feet content at a temperature of 32° 
F. With brine nearly twice this amount of piping would 
be necessary. 

For cooling the brine in the brine tank, about 140 feet 
of i><i-inch pipes are required per ton of refrigerating 
capacity. 

Expense of Operating. When a refrigerating plant 
has once been installed and charged with the necessary 
ammonia, the principal expense connected with it will be 
the power required to operate the compressor. This 
power in a creamery is supplied by the creamery engine. 
The ammonia, being used over and over again, will add 
but a trifle to the running expenses. Nor can the water 
used for cooling the ammonia vapors add much to the 
cost of operating. It is true, however, that the refrigera- 



MECHANICAL RBFRICBRATION 211 

tin^ plant will require some of the butter maker's time 
and attention, but this is probably no more than would be 
consumed in the handling of ice in the creamery. 

Charging and Operating an Ammonia Plant. This 
subject is so ably discussed in The Bngineer by H. H. 
Kelley that the author feels he can do no better than 
present the following extracts from that article. 

''When about to start an ice or refrigerating plant, the 
first thing necessary is to see that the system is charged 
with the proper amount of ammonia. Before the ammonia 
is put in, however, all air and moisture must be removed ; 
otherwise the efficiency of the system will be seriously 
interfered with. Special valves are usually provided for 
discharging the air, which is removed from the system 
by starting the compressor and pumping the air out, the 
operation of the gas cylinder being just the reverse of that 
when it is working ammonia gas. It is practically impos- 
sible to get all the air out of the entire system by this 
means, so that some other course must be taken to remove 
any remaining air after the compressor has been started at 
regular work. This can be accomplished by admitting the 
ammonia a little at a time, permitting the air to escape 
through a purge valve, the air being thus expelled by dis- 
placement. The cylinder containing the anhydrous am- 
monia is connected to the charging valve by a suitable 
pipe, and the valve opened. The compressor is then kept 
running slowly with the suction and discharge valves wide 
open and the expansion valve closed. When one cylinder 
is emptied put another in its place, being careful to close 
the charging valve before attempting to remove the empty 
cylinder, opening it when the fresh cylinder is connected 
up. 

"From sixty to seventy-five per cent of the full charge is 



212 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

sufficient to start with so that the air may have an oppor- 
tunity of escaping with as Httle loss of ammonia as possi- 
ble. An additional quantity of ammonia may then be put 
in each day until the full charge has been introduced. 
When the ammonia cylinders have been emptied and a 
charge of, say, seventy-five per cent of the full amount has 
been introduced, the charging valve is closed and the ex- 
pansion valve opened. The glass gauge on the ammonia 
receiver will indicate the depth of ammonia. The appear- 
ance of frost on the pipe leading to the coils and the 
cooling of the brine in the tank will indicate that enough 
ammonia has been introduced to start with. It is some- 
times difficult to completely empty an ammonia cylinder 
without first applying heat. The process of cooling being 
the same when the ammonia expands from the cylinder 
into the system as when leaving the expansion valve, a 
low temperature is produced and the cylinder and con- 
nections become covered with frost. When this occurs the 
cylinder must be slightly warmed in order to be able to 
get all the ammonia out of it. The ammonia cylinders, 
when filled, should never be subjected to rough handling 
and are preferably kept in a cool place free from any lia- 
bility to accident. The fact that ammonia is soluble in 
water should be well understood by persons charging a 
refrigerating system, or working about the plant. One 
part of water will absorb about 800 parts of ammonia gas 
and in case of accident to the ammonia piping or machine, 
water should be employed to absorb the escaping gas. 
Persons employed about a plant of this kind should be 
provided with some style of respirator, the simplest form 
of which is a wet cloth held over the mouth and nose. 

''After starting the compressor at the proper speed and 
adjusting the regulating valve note the temperature of 



MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION 213 

the delivery pipe, and if there is a tendency to heat open 
it wider, and vice versa. This valve should be carefully 
regulated until the temperature of the delivery pipe is 
practically the same as the water discharged from the 
ammonia condenser. With too light a charge of am- 
monia the delivery pipe will become heated even when 
the regulating valve is wide open. As a general thing 
when the plant is working properly the temperature of 
the refrigerator is about 15° lower than the brine being 
used, the temperature of the water discharged from the 
ammonia condenser will be about 15° lower than that of 
the condenser, the pointers on the gauges will vibrate the 
same distance at each stroke of the compressor and the 
frost on the pipes entering and leaving the refrigerator 
will be about the same. By placing the ear close to the 
expansion valve the ammonia can be heard passing 
through it, the sound being uniform and continuous when 
everything is working properly. 

"When air is present the flow of ammonia will be more 
or less intermittent, which irregularity is generally notice- 
able through a change in the usual sound heard at the ex- 
pansion valve. The pressure in the condenser will also be 
higher and the effect of the apparatus as a whole will 
be changed, and, of course, not so good. These changes 
will be quickly noticed by a person accustomed to the 
conditions obtaining when everything is in order and 
working properly. 

''The removal of air is accomplished in practically the 
same manner as when charging the system, permitting 
it to escape through the purging valve a little at a time 
so as not to lose any more gas than is absolutely necessary. 

''The presence of oil or water in the system is generally 
detected by shocks occurring in the compressor cylinder. 



214 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

"In nearly all plants the presence of oil in the system of 
piping is unavoidable. The oil used for lubricating pur- 
poses, especially at the piston rod stuffing boxes, works 
into the cylinders and is carried with the hot gas into the 
ammonia piping, where it never fails to cause trouble. 
The method of removing the air from the system has 
already been referred to, but the removal of oil is accomp- 
lished by means of an oil separator. This is placed in 
the main pipe between the compressor and the condenser, 
and is of about the size of the ammonia receiver. Some- 
times another oil separator is placed in the return pipe 
close to the compressor, which serves to eliminate any 
remaining oil in the warmer gas and to remove pieces of 
scale and other foreign matter which, if permitted to enter 
the compressor cylinder, would tend to destroy it in a 
very short time. 

"The oil, which always gets into the system sooner or 
later and in greater or less quantity, depending upon the 
care exercised to avoid it, acts as an insulator and pre- 
vents the rapid transfer of heat from the ammonia to the 
pipe that ought to obtain, and also occupies considerable 
space that is required for the ammonia where the best re- 
sults are to be obtained." 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



cre:ame:ry book-keeping. 



The object of book-keeping is to keep a record of busi- 
ness transactions, enabling the proprietor or proprietors 
at any time to determine the true condition of the business. 

In most businesses usually one of two forms of book- 
keeping is followed : either double entry which makes use 
of three books — day book, journal, and ledger — or single 
entry which makes use of only two books, a day book or 
journal, and ledger. 

The day book contains a detailed record of business 
transactions. Entries are made in this book as soon as 
the transaction occurs. 

The journal contains the debits and credits arranged 
in convenient form for transferring to the ledger. 

The ledger contains the final results. 

Debits and Credits. These words are usually abbre- 
viated Dr. and Cr. respectively. The debits and credits in 
any business transaction are determined by the following 
rule: debit whatever costs value; credit zvhatever pro- 
duces value. In a journal entry the sum of the debits and 
the sum of the credits must be equal. 

Double and Single Entry Book=keeping. While 
double entry is the most complete form of keeping a busi- 
ness record, it entails too much work for creameries, 
which have but a limited time to devote to keeping books. 

Single entry book-keeping when properly carried out 
has proved very satisfactory and most creameries follow 
this method in a more or less modified form. 

215 



216 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



In the following pages a simple and approved method of 
book-keeping is presented which may be followed by any 
creamery whether proprietary, co-operative, or otherwise. 
In this method the following books and papers are made 
use of: 

(i) Day book, (2) order book, (3) sales book, (4) 
cash book, (5) pay roll register, (6) ledger, (7) milk 
sheet, (8) milk book, (9) test book, and (10) butter slips. 

Day Book. All transactions made at the creamery 
should be at once recorded in the day book. At the close 
of the day or at some convenient time the records made in 
the day book are transferred to the order book, sales book, 
or cash book, according to the transaction. The following 
examples illustrate the manner of making records in the 
day book. 



January 6, 1900. 

Sold to J. D. Steele & Co. on account 
1,100 lbs. of butter @ 24c 

Bought of Newman & Co., for cash, 1 san- 
itary milk pump 

5 gal. butter color @ $1.70 

20 gal. separator oil @ 20c 

Bought of H. Chandler on account 11 
cords of wood @ $3.00 



$20 
8 
4 



00 
50 
00 



$264 



32 



33 



00 



50 



00 



When payment is made for goods at the time the 
transaction occurs the term "for cash" is used. When 
payment is made some time after the transaction occurs 
the term "on account" is used. 



CREAMERY BOOK-KEEPING 



211 



Order and Sales Books. All purchases and sales are 
1 ecorded in the manner illustrated below : 



o 

o 

CO 






73 

O 
bO 

.s 

'S 






•a 


i_^ 


c 


^_i 


l_l 


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^ 


o 


o 




be 


hn 


be 




ct 


o 


nJ 


rt 




u 


'U 


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^ (-] 


r^ 


rC 


^ 




U 


H 


u 


U 



o 
U 

bo 0^ 



0^ 

Q Q 



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8 


8 S 8 


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■ M : 


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g 


JJ Sj 


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8 8 


Jiaqj. 






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8 8 


jno 






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oi 


00 


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g S 


^^ 










>^ 


^ 


: kh 


i 


Z 


^ 


^ 1^ 




o 


o 


^ 5 


-o 


c^ 


cS 


i- I 


<3 


SB 


it 




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= 


s 




m 


m 


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A '■ 




















o 


o 


fe 6 


2 


u 


o 


-i8 O 


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^ 


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eo 


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<N 00 


|§ 









218 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



Cash Book. Cash book records are illustrated below : 

CASH BOOK 



Date. 



Cash received. 



Mar. 1 


* 


Bal 


" 10 


4 


But 


" 14 


4 




" 20 


5 




" 24 


5 




" 24 


5 




" 28 


5 




■■' 28 


5 




'" 30 


5 





From Fet) 

Willson&Co 

Willson&Co 

Nicholson «& Fish. 
Willson&Son.... 
Nicholson «& Fish. 
Willson«&Son. ... 

J. C. R. & Co 

Nicholson & Fish 



$181 


00 




180 


00 




208 


00 




374 


50 




249 


90 




139 


80 




201 


00 




10 


10 




848 


38 


$2, 392 



* Sales book Page, 
-(monthly record). 



Date, 



Cash paid. 



Mar. 10 


§6 


" 11 


6 


" 18 


7 


" 24 


7 


" 27 


7 


" 27 


7 


" 28 


7 


" 29 


7 


" 31 


7 


" 31 


7 



Butter tubs.... 

Tinning 

Butter printer. 
Cleaningpo'der 
Boiler repair. . . 

Salary 

Wood 

Sundries 

Patrons 

Balance 



Thorbin & Son . . 

Paul Burger 

R. S. D. &Co.... 
R. S. D. & Co.... 
J. R. Smith & Co 

John Smith 

W. Saunders .. . 

John Jones 

Monthly dues. .. 
To new account 



$90 


00 




3 


00 




20 


00 




11 


00 




14 


00 




95 


00 




55 


00 




4 


35 




1,902 


48 




197 


85 


$2,392 



§ Order book page. 



CRBAMBRY BOOK-KEEPING 



219 



Pay Roll Register. Each patron's monthly account is 
recorded in the pay roll register as illustrated below : 







PAY 


ROLL REGISTER. 










Date, 

1898. 


a 


Name. 


i 


i 

(V 




6 


a 
< 


.a 
o 




O o 

O 


April 5 
" 5 


1 

2 


John Smith 

Paul Wirth 


7,850 
4,575 


3.9 
4.0 


306.15 
183.00 


$0 20 
20 


$61 23 
36 60 


$1.48 


$59 75 
36 60 


123V 
124V 


\ Mej 


im 


. paid. 



















The Ledger. Where a good, permanent, and easily 
accessible record is desirable, the main items of all trans- 
actions should be posted under suitable heads in the 
ledger. Where there is liable to be a frequent change of 
bookkeepers the additional work involved in keeping a 
ledger is well justified. 

In case monthly payments are made at the creamery all 
accounts should be closed once a month and those with 
different individuals should be kept separate. The fol- 
lowing illustrates a ledger account with a butter firm in 
New York. 



Dr. 






John Johnson & Co 








Or. 


1898. 






New York City. 


Sept. 3 


Balance 

Sale ". 


*12 
12 
13 


$90 40 
103 38 
84 50 


Sept. 6 

" 18 
" 31 


Check .. 


114 
14 
14 


$80 35 

. 139 85 


" 7 


Check 


" 20 


Sale 


Balance 






58 08 


Oct. 1 


Balance 


13 


58 08 










*Sale 


3 book page. 






1 Cash b 


ook page. 









220 



.CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 



Below is illustrated a ledger account with a creamery 
supply house in Chicago : 



Dr. 






J. D. Murray & Co. 






Cr 


1898. 






Chicago. 


Aug. 4 
" U 


Check 


*15 
15 
15 


$29 00 
64 50 
19 38 


Aug. 1 

5 

" 19 


Balance.... 

Order 

Order 


116 
16 
16 


$18 50 


Check 


70 38 


" 31 


Balance 


24 00 










Sept. 1 


Balance .... 


16 


19 38 


*Casl 


1 book page. 






t Order book page. 







The following illustrates a ledger record with a patron 
of the creamery : 



Dr. 






William Sampson. 




Cr. 


1898. 








Piketown 


August 
Sept. 


31 
31 


Check 

Check 


$61 50 
83 92 


August 
Sept. 


Milk 

Milk 


$61 50 *18 
83 92 19 



* Pay roll register page. 



Milk Sheet and Milk Book. Immediately after milk 
is weighed it is recorded upon a milk sheet placed in the 
intake. This sheet consists of heavy paper with the date, 
name, and number of the patron upon it. The names 
should be arranged in alphabetical order. A suitable milk 
sheet is illustrated in Fig. 53- 

Where care is taken in recording the milk upon the 
milk sheet, the milk book may be dispensed with. In 
that case a record of the milk is preserved by filing the 
milk sheets after each patron's total has been transferred 



CREAMERY BOOK-KEEPING 



221 



to the pay roll register. In case, however, a careful daily 
record of the milk is to be preserved, it is better to copy 
the milk from the milk sheet into a rnilk book in which 
a record may be preserved for a long time. 





/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


'.T 












































































'"' 












































































, 






























































































































































































































































































- 


- 






- 










































































^ 
























































































































































^ 
























































































































































,, 












































































^, 
















































































































































































































































































































1R 




































































































































































































































ll 




























































































































































































































































































































































































ri 






























































































. 






























































































































































































































































































^ 












































































nn 












































































31 




















■ 

















































































































































































































Fig. 53.— Milk sheet. 



Test Book. A permanent record of milk tests is made 
in the test book. The following illustrates the method of 
keeping such a record : 



222 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



Patron's name. 

1898. 


y-i 
c 
< 


















TestNo 


1 


2 
















Date — Aug. 7 


3.8 


4.3 




















" 15 


3.9 


4.3 




















" 23 


3.8 


4.1 





















Butter Slips. It is customary with creamery patrons 
to take the butter for their use at the creamery and have 
the vakie of it deducted from their check. If all butter 
thus taken were to be recorded in the day book and from 
this transferred to a patron's butter book, it would involve 
a great deal of labor for the butter maker. Hence the use 
of butter slips. These are small slips of paper on which 
the small butter accounts are kept until the close of the 
month. Below is illustrated one of these slips : 




CREAMERY BOOK-KEEPING 223 

The butter slips are all placed on file until the close of 
the month when each patron's total butter charged to him 
is found from these slips. The charge thus found is 
entered directly in the column marked ''charge" in the 
pay roll register, while the slips are preserved for future 
reference. 



CHAPTER XXV. 



co-operative: cre;ame:ries. 



I. Co-operative Creameries. There are two distinct 
classes of creameries in existence at the present time. 
(i) Those owned and operated by private individuals, 
called proprietary creameries; (2) those owned and oper- 
ated by the patrons, known as co-operative creameries. 

Most of the creameries built at the present time belong 
to the co-operative type. This is the ideal plan upon 
which creameries should be built and operated and it has 
in most cases proved successful. 

Methods of Organizing Co-operative Creameries. 
Too frequently co-operative creameries are established 
by so-called ''promoters," whose aim is to make money for 
themselves by taxing the farmers a thousand dollars or 
more in excess of the actual cost of the creamery. 

If a community of farmers is interested in the estab- 
lishment of a creamery, the following method of organiz- 
ing should be pursued : 

1. Let those most interested in the project make a 
thorough canvass of the milk producers in that community 
to ascertain the number of cows available. There should 
not be less than 400 cows to start with. 

2. If the desired number of cows is available, the next 
step is to secure a subscription of $4,500 by selling shares 
for that amount. This sum of money is necessary to build 
and equip a substantial fire proof creamery containing all 
the modern creamery machinery. Where possible it is 

224 



CO-OPBRATIVB CREAMERIES 225 

desirable to sell shares only to prospective creamery 
patrons, so that the creamery may be a truly co-operative 
one. 

3. When the necessary funds have been subscribed, 
call a meeting of the shareholders to elect a president, 
secretary, treasurer, manager, and a board of directors 
which should consist of the president, secretary, treasurer, 
and at least three other shareholders. 

4. The next step is to specify a certain time within 
which all subscriptions must be paid. The money is pref- 
erably turned over to a reliable banker in the form of 
notes bearing interest. 

5. The treasurer should be authorized to draw upon 
the bank for the money thus deposited whenever occasion 
demands, but he should be required to give security for 
the money that comes into his hands. 

6. When all subscriptions have been paid, a meeting 
of the board of directors should be called for the purpose 
of hiring a butter maker who shall not only be able to 
make a first class article of butter, but who shall also be 
competent to plan and superintend the construction of the 
creamery. This is a point which most co-operative crean> 
eries overlook. The result is there are dozens of cream- 
eries scattered all over the country which are faulty in 
both design and construction. 

Before drawing up his plans it would be policy for 
the butter maker to visit several up-to-date creameries so 
as to get the latest ideas on creamery construction. 

7. The creamery is paid for out of a sinking fund 
created by charging the patrons, in addition to the charge 
necessary to cover running expenses, say one cent for 
every pound of butter fat delivered until the creamery 
is paid for. 

15 



226 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING ' 

8. After the creamery is paid for, there should be 
an annual dividend declared to the shareholders as inter- 
est on their investment. 

9. A sufficient sinking fund must be maintained to 
cover the annual dividend and the running expenses, by 
charging from two to three cents for every pound of 
butter fat delivered. 

Management of Co=operative Creameries. Too fre- 
quently the management of co-operative creameries is 
placed in the hands of persons who know little or nothing 
about creamery matters. Perhaps more co-operative 
creamery failures can be traced to this cause than to any 
other. 

The stockholders of co-operative creameries should 
select a manager and managing board who are familiar 
with the details of the business they are going to manage. 
Advice should freely be sought from the butter maker 
who in most cases is the best posted man to govern the 
affairs of the creamery. 

2. Co=operation of Butter maker and Patron. The 
relationship of butter maker and patron should be one of 
mutual interest — a business relationship. Butter making 
is a business and, as such, should be governed by business 
principles. 

The butter maker, then, besides being able to make a 
fine quality of butter, must be a business man, dealing as 
he does with farmers, bankers, merchants, mechanics, and 
others. He must be honest, tactful, and full of enterprise. 

Too frequently self-interest figures too conspicuously in 
the management of creamery affairs. This can not help 
but result, sooner or later, in the ruination of the business. 

The butter maker has, and must have, certain rights 
which, if rightly asserted, can not help but be productive 



CO-OPBRATIVB CREAMERIES 227 

of much good. If used otherwise, these rights will create 
enmity and become a damage to the creamery. For exam- 
ple, a butter maker has a right to demand of his patrons 
good clean milk, but he can not attain his object by 
repeatedly sending back milk that is not right. Tactfully 
explaining the evils resulting from unclean milk, giving 
the probable cause, and manifesting a willingness to visit 
his premises, will accomplish very much more in reform- 
ing the patron. 

Greeting the patrons with a smile and a ''good morn- 
ing" inspires confidence. Accuracy in sampling, weighing 
and testing, a clean person and clean surroundings, are 
things that merit more than ordinary attention. 

The best way for butter makers to get along with their 
patrons is to help them in every way they can. They 
should act as educators of their patrons in their respective 
communities. No person has a greater opportunity for 
doing good in his community than the butter maker. 

A few printed instructions to patrons occasionally can 
not fail to be productive of much good, both to the patron 
and to the butter maker. The following may be con- 
sidered as sample instructions : 

1. Get cows that are purely dairy animals. Cows that 
have a tendency to lay on flesh while giving milk are not 
the most profitable for the dairy. A milch cow should 
convert her food into milk, not into flesh. Such a cow 
you will generally find a spare, lean looking animal. 

2. Do not be afraid to invest $ioo in a good sire of 
some good dairy breed to head your herd. See to it 
that this sire is a descendant of prolific milkers, and that 
he has good breeding qualities. 

3. Feed ' liberally. Remember that about sixty per 
cent of what a cow can eat and properly assimilate is 



228 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

required for her maintenance; that which is fed beyond 
this is utihzed for the production of milk if the cow is 
a purely milk-producing animal. Hence the wisdom of 
feeding a cow to her full capacity. 

4. Do not feed just one kind of feed. Variety of 
feeds is essential in economical feeding. 

5. Feed liberally of concentrated feeds like bran and 
oil meal, especially during scarcity of pasturage. 

6. Do not be afraid to invest $16 in a ton of bran, 
for its value to you as a fertilizer alone is $11. 

7. Always milk your cows at the same time morning 
and evening. Regularity in milking means more milk. 

8. Do not change milkers, and insist that the milkers 
treat the cows gently. 

9. Always thoroughly cool night's milk by placing it 
m cold water and stirring it frequently. 

10. Do not allow the calves to suckle the cows more 
than three days after calving. 

11. Always add a few tablespoon fuls of oil meal or 
cooked flax seed to the skim-milk before feeding it to 
your calves. 

12. Grow a liberal supply of clover and peas, for these 
produce a liberal flow o# milk, at the same time enrich- 
ing the soil. 

13. Grow an abundance of corn and ensilo it. It may 
prove your most economical feed. 

14. Never place your milk cans in the barn while 
milking for the barn odors will taint the milk. 

15. Do not bed or feed your cows, or in any way dis- 
turb the barn dust, while milking. 

16. Always provide your cows with a liberal supply 
of salt and pure water. Never allow them to drink stag- 
nant water. 



CO-OPBRATIVB CRB AMBRIES 229 

17. Bring samples of milk from the individual cows 
of your herd for testing. It will cost you nothing, but 
it may be of great value to you. 

18. A sample consisting of a portion (i oz.) of the 
night's and morning's milk is necessary for a test. Always 
thoroughly mix milk before sampling. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM AT THE FARM. 

This is a subject which vitally affects the success of 
every creamery, and one in which patrons have hitherto 
had too little instruction. A great deal of the poor milk 
and cream produced at the present time is the result of 
ignorance. Buttermakers and creamery managers should 
see to it that their patrons are thoroughly instructed in 
all that pertains to the correct management of milk and 
cream at the farm. 

THE DAIRY HOUSE. 

All creamery patrons must have a small dairy house 
in order to properly care for their milk, cream and milk 
vessels. The added convenience which such a house 
affords ought to be some inducement toward getting one. 
A dairv house is especially important for cream patrons. 

Location and Construction. In selecting a site for a 
dairy house, convenience and sanitation should be given 
first consideration. A well-drained spot, free from rub- 
bish and bad odors and within reasonable distance from 
the barn and well, should be selected. 

In the construction of a dairy house sanitary features 
should be made paramount. The floor should be built 
of concrete, and it is desirable to have the lower four or 
six feet of the wall finished with cement. Indeed it is a 
distinct advantage to have the entire walls covered with 
hard finish of some kind to make them readily cleanable. 

230 



MILK AND CREAM AT FARM 231 

The ceiling should be about to feet high and made of well 
matched ceiling lumber. A ventilating shaft should ex- 
tend from the middle of the ceiling to the top of the roof 
to carry off vapors and impure air. 

Essentially the same plan of construction may be fol- 
lowed as that outlined for the construction of the cream- 
ery. 

Equipment. For those furnishing milk, the equipment 
should consist of a cooler, cooling tank, water heater, and 
wash sinks. When cream is sold, a cream separator, some 
form of power, and preferably an ice box, are added to 
the equipment needed for milk. 

COOLING MILK AND CREAM. 

Importance of Low Temperature. Milk always con- 
tains bacteria no matter how cleanly the conditions under 
which it is drawn. At ordinary temperatures these bac- 
teria increase with marvelous rapidity; at low tempera- 
tures their growth practically ceases. The effect of tem- 
perature on bacterial development is graphically shown 
in Fig. 54. At a temperature of 50° F. the bacteria mul- 
tiplied five times ; at 70° F. they multiplied seven hundred 
and fifty times. 

Roughly speaking, at 98° F. bacteria multiply one hun- 
dred times faster than 70° F. At 32° F. bacterial devel- 
opment practically ceases. 

Milk or cream may be kept sweet a long time at 40° 
to 45° F. because the lactic acid bacteria practically stop 
growing at these temperatures. But there are other 
classes of bacteria that can grow at these temperatures, 
as evidenced by the production of undesirable flavors. 



232 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Such flavors usually become noticeable after thirty-six 
hours. That bad flavors occur at these low temperatures 
should be sufficient reason for making- frequent deliveries 
of cream. 

Prompt Cooling. Immediately after the milk is drawn, 
it should be removed from the barn to a clean, pure 







Fig. 54.— Relation of temperature to bacterial growth. 

a represents a single bacterium; b, its progeny in twenty-four hours in 
milk kept at 50° F.: c, its progeny in twenty-four hours in milk kept at 70° F. 
(Bui. 26, Storrs, Conn.) 

atmosphere where it is aerated and cooled by using coolers 
like those shown in Figs. 55 and 56. The ordinary method 
of cooling milk and cream in five and ten gallon cans is 
too slow for best results. 

Cone=Shaped Cooler. For small and medium sized 
dairies a cheap cooler like that shown in Fig. 55 may be 
used to advantage. The water enters at the bottom of 
the cooler and discharges at the top, while the milk flows 
in a thin sheet over the outside. Ice may be placed inside 
the cooler, if desired. The can at the top is the milk re- 



MILK AND CREAM AT FARM 



233 



ceiver, which has small openings at the bottom near the 
outside, through which the milk discharges in fine streams 
directly upon the cone below. 

Corrugated Cooler. For large dairies a cooler like 
that shown in Fig. 56 answers very satisfactorily. An 
elevated barrel is connected with the cooler and filled with 





Fig. 55.— Cone-shaped cooler. 



Fig. 56.— Corrugated cooler. 



cold water which circulates between the two surfaces of 
the cooler, the milk and cream flowing over the outside. 
An ice water attachment may be added to the cooler if 
desired, or ice may be added to the water in the barrel. 
Both the cone-shaped and corrugated coolers permit 
cooling to within a few degrees of the temperature of 
the water used, and also give milk and cream sufficient 
aeration. 



HOW TO SECURE HOT WATER. 



Where no steam is available, the best means of pro 
curing hot water is the apparatus shown in Fig. 57. 



234 



CRBAMERV BUTTER MAKING 



The 1 ot water tank is that commonly nsed in residences 
for heating water for the bath tub and can be obtained 
from plumbers for about $7.00. Any stove in which 
iron coils can be heated will answer as a heater. 




Fig. 57.— Cheap arrangement for securing hot water. 

After the milk vessels have been thoroughly washed, 
they should be placed in boiling water for about five 
minutes and then inverted upon clean shelves. For details 
of washing see chapter on Washing and Sterilizing. 



POWER ON THE FARM. 



The use of some form of power upon dairy farms has 
frequently been recommended in the past, but never before 
has its use been more urgent than at the present time. 
The increasing scarcity of labor, the rapid increase of 



MILK AND CREAM AT FARM 235 

hand separators, and the general convenience it afifords, 
have made power an actual necessity upon progressive 
dairy farms. 

The kind of power needed upon a dairy farm depends 
upon certain conditions. If a tread power is used for 
exercising the bull, this will serve satisfactorily for sep- 
arating milk, pumping water, and doing other light work. 
In recent years gasoline engines have become very popu- 
lar. A two horse power engine will serve very satisfac- 
torily for running the cream separator, pumping water 
and doing other light work such as running the wash 
machine, grindstone, etc. 

Power not only afifords great convenience upon a farm 
but will also curtail the running expenses. 

If, for example, we assume that one hour is required 
daily in running the separator, and another in pumping 
water for stock, the total time consumed in this work in 
one year would be 730 hours, or yi^ days of 10 hours each. 
At $1 a day, the cost of separating and pumping would 
amount to %y2> ^ year. With a gasoline engine running 
the pump and separator at the same time, this work could 
be done in 365 hours. Allowing 6c per hour for gasoline 
and oil, which is a high estimate, the cost of doing the 
above work with an engine would be $21.90, or less than 
one-third of what it can be done for with hired labor. 
This saving is equivalent to about 25 per cent, on the in- 
vestment of the engine, if used for no other purpose than 
separating milk and pumping water. 

The fuel cost of running a gasoline engine may be 
stated as follows : When gasoline is worth loc per gallon, 
gasoline power will cost ic per brake horse power per 
hour. 



236 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



FASTENING THE SEPARATOR. 



To secure steady motion, the separator must be fastened 
to a solid foundation. There is nothing better in this re- 
spect than a concrete floor with which every dairy should 
be provided. 





Fig. 58.— Method of fastening separator. 

There are two common methods of fastening a sepa- 
rator to a concrete floor : One is to fasten two 4x4-inch 
blocks into the concrete floor as illustrated in Fig. 58. The 
separator is then fastened to these blocks in the same man- 
ner as to a wood floor. The other method of fastening 
consists in chiseling four conical holes into the concrete 
floor, at a distance corresponding with the four holes in 
the separator base. The cavities thus made are filled with 
Babbitt metal, into which holes a little smaller than the lag 
screws are drilled. The separator is then fastened by 
turning the lag screws into the Babbitt. (See Fig. 59.) 

The Babbitt may be dispensed with by fastening the 
bolts with cement as shown in Fig. 59. 



MILK AND CREAM AT FARM 



237 



MANAGEMENT OF SEPARATOR. 

This subject is fully discussed in the chapter on Cream- 
ing. What is said there of power machines applies 
equally to hand separators. 

Farmers should be cautioned against using any but the 
best grade of hand separator oil. They should also be 
taught the importance of cleaning the separator after each 
use. 




Fig. 59.— Methods of fastening separator. 



ADVANTAGES OE RICH CREAM. 

To separate a rich cream at the farm results in mutual 
benefit to producer and manufacturer. The main advan- 
tages are as follows: (i) Less bulk to handle; (2) less 
cream to cool; (3) less transportation charges; (4) more 
skimmilk for the farmer; (5) better keeping quality; 
(6) allows more starter to be added; (7) gives better 
results in churning, and (8) makes pasteurization easier, 
especially with sour cream. 



238 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



Too rich a cream must be avoided, however, since this 
sticks too much to the cream vessels ; 40% is about the 
right richness. 




Fig. 60. —A cross section of ice box. 



MILK AND CRBAM AT FARM 239 

THE VALUE OF AN ICE HOUSE. 

Where cream can not be delivered daily, ice is in- 
dispensable in keeping it in satisfactory condition. In 
addition to cooling milk and cream, ice can be employed to 
good advantage in several other ways. Its value in the 
household in preserving meats, vegetables and fruits can 
not be overestimated. And what is so refreshing as cold 
drinks and frozen desserts during the summer months ! 
Ice is also frequently necessary in case of sickness. Care- 
ful study will show that these advantages will far more 
than offset the small cost of laying in a store of ice. 
For further particulars regarding ice and the construction 
of ice houses, see chapter on Ice House and Refrigerator. 

A CHEAP ICE BOX. 

A simple, cheap, and effective ice box for keeping milk 
and cream cold is shown in Fig. 60. This box was de- 
signed by the author and has been in successful use for 
nearly two years. It consists essentially of two boxes 
separated by one-inch strips, placed at intervals of about 
one foot. Double thickness of building paper is placed on 
both sides of the strips and tacked to the boxes. The in- 
side is lined with galvanized iron. 

Three-quarter inch tongued and grooved lumber is 
used in the construction of the sides, bottom and cover, 
while the ends are built of one and one-eighth inch 
tongued and grooved flooring, three and one-half inches 
wide. A heavy weight attached to a one-half inch rope 
running over a pulley fastened to the ceiling, raises the 
cover and holds it open when desired. 

A short piece of gas pipe is inserted through the bottom 



240 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

of the box to provide drainage, the outlet of this pipe 
being connected with a trap to prevent entrance of air 
into the box. 

The total cost of the ice box used by the author was 
$27.40, including labor. The inside dimensions of this 
box are: Length, 7 1-3 feet; width, 2 1-4 feet; depth, 
2 1-3 feet. A box half the size of this would answer for 
the average sized dairy. 

CLEAN MILK. 

This is the basis of high quality in all dairy products. 
The method of securing clean, sanitary milk is fully dis- 
cussed in the following chapter. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION. 

Sanitary Milk Defined. Sanitary milk is milk from 
healthy cows, produced and handled under conditions in 
which contamination from filth, bad odors, and bacteria, 
is reduced to a minimum. 

Importance of Sanitary Milk. The production of 
clean, pure milk is one of the most important subjects 
which confronts buttermakers at the present time. Fur- 
ther improvements in the quality of butter must largely 
be sought in the use of cleaner milk. 

No matter how skillful a buttermaker may be, he can 
not produce the highest quality of butter from milk of 
inferior quality. Skill may do much to improve quality 
but it can never make perfection out of imperfection. It 
should, therefore, be as much a duty of the butter maker 
to keep his patrons properly instructed in the care and 
handling of milk as it is to keep himself posted on the 
latest and most approved methods of making butter. 

The Necessary Conditions for the production of sani- 
tary milk are as follows: (i) Healthy cows; (2) sani- 
tary barn; (3) clean barn yard; (4) clean cows; (5) 
clean milkers; (6) clean milk vessels; (7) clean, whole- 
some feed; (8) pure water; (9) clean strainers; (10) 
dust-free stable air; (11) clean bedding; (12) milking 
with dry hands; (13) thorough cooling of milk after 
milking; (14) sanitary milk room. 

Healthy Cows. The health of the cow is of prime im- 
portance in the production of sanitary milk. All milk 
16 241 



242 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

from cows affected with contagious diseases should be 
rigidly excluded from the dairy. Aside from the general 
unfitness of such milk there is danger of the disease pro- 
ducing organisms getting into the milk. It has been 
found, for example, that cows whose udders are affected 
with tuberculosis, yield milk containing these organisms. 
The prevalence of this disease among cows at present 
makes it imperative to determine definitely whether or 
not cows are affected with the disease, by the application 
of the tuberculin test. 

Any feverish condition of the cow tends to impart a 
feverish odor to the milk, which should therefore not be 
used. Especially important is it that milk from diseased 
udders, no matter what the character of the disease, be 
discarded. 

Sanitary Barn. Light, ventilation, and ease of clean- 
ing are essential to a sanitary dairy barn. The disinfect- 
ant action of an abundance of sunlight, secured by pro- 
viding a large number of windows, is of the highest im- 
portance. 

Of equal importance is a clean, pure atmosphere, secur- 
ed by a continuous ventilating system. The fact that 
odors of any description are absorbed by milk with great 
avidity, sufficiently emphasises the great need of pure air. 

To permit of easy cleaning, the barn floors and gutters 
should be built of concrete. They should be scrubbed 
daily^ and care should be taken to keep the walls and 
ceiling free from dust and cobwebs. The feed boxes must 
also be cleaned after each feed. 

The stalls should be of the simplest construction, to 
afford as little chance for lodgement of dust as possible. 
Furthermore, they should so fit the cows as to cause the 
latter to stand with their hind feet on the edge of the gut- 



SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION 243 

ter, a matter of the highest importance in keeping cows 
dean. 

The walls and ceiling should be as smooth as possible. 
Moreover, they should be frequently disinfected by means 
of a coat of whitewash. The latter gives the barn a 
striking sanitary appearance. 

Clean Barn Yard. A clean, well drained barn yard is 
an essential factor in the production of sanitary milk. 
Where cows are obliged to wade in mire and filth, it is 
easy to foretell what the quality of the milk will be. To 
secure a good barn yard it must be covered with gravel 
or cinders, and should slope away from the barn. If the 
manure is not taken directly from the stable to the fields, 
it should be placed where the cows cannot have access 
to it. 

Clean Cows. Where the barn and barn-yard are sani- 
tary, cows may be expected to be reasonably clean. Yet 
cows that are apparently clean, may still be the means of 
infecting milk to no small degree. When we consider 
that every dust particle and every hair that drops into 
the milk may add hundreds, thousands, or even millions 
of bacteria to it, we realize the importance of taking every 
precaution to guard against contamination from this 
source. 

To keep cows as free as possible from loose hair and 
dust particles they should be carded and brushed regu- 
larly once a day. This should be done after milking to 
avoid dust. Five to ten minutes before the cow is milked 
her udder and flanks should be gently washed with clean, 
tepid water, by using a clean sponge or cloth. This will 
allow sufficient time for any adhering drops of water to 
drip off, at the same time it will keep the udder and flanks 
sufficiently moist to prevent dislodgment of dust particles 



244 CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 

and hairs at milking time. This practically means that 
the milker must always have one or two cows washed 
ahead. He should be careful to wash his hands in clean 
water after each washing. 

Under ordinary conditions the cow is the greatest 
source of milk contamination. The rubbing of the milker 
against her and the shaking of the udder will dislodge 
numerous dust particles and hairs unless the foregoing 
instructions are rigidly followed. 

Attention should also be given to the cow's switch, 
which should be kept scrupulously clean. The usual 
switching during milking is no small matter in the con- 
tamination of milk when the switch is not clean. 

Clean Milkers. Clothes which have been worn in the 
fields are not suitable for milking purposes. Every milker 
should be provided with a clean, white milking suit, con- 
sisting of cap, jacket and trousers. Such clothes can be 
bought ready made for one dollar; and, if frequently 
laundered, will materially aid in securing clean milk. 




Fig. 61. Unflushed seam. Fig. 62. Flushed seam. 

Milkers should also wash and dry their hands before 
milking, and, above all, should keep them dry during 
milking. 

Clean Vessels. All utensils used in the handling of 



SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION 245 

milk should be made of good tin, with as few seams as 
possible. Wherever seams occur, they should be flushed 
with solder. Unflushed seams are difficult to clean, and, 
as a rule, afford good breeding places for bacteria. Fig. 
6i illustrates the character of the unflushed seam ; Fig. 62 
shows a flushed seam, which fully illustrates its value. 

Fig. 63 illustrates a modern sanitary milk pail. The 
value of a partially closed pail is evident from the re- 
duced opening, which serves to keep out many of the 
micro-organisms that otherwise drop into the pail during 




Fig. 63. Sanitary Milk Pail. 

milking. While such a pail is somewhat more difficult 
to clean than the ordinary open pail, it is believed that 
the reduced contamination during milking far outweiglis 
this disadvantage. 

All utensils used in the handling of milk should be as 
nearly sterile as possible. A very desirable method of 
cleaning them is as follows : 

First, rinse with warm or cold water. Second, scrub 



246 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

with moderately hot water containing some sal soda. 
The washing should be done with brushes rather than 
cloth because the bristles enter into any crevices present 
which the cloth cannot possibly reach. Furthermore, it 
is very difficult to keep the cloth clean. Third, scald 
thoroughly with steam or hot water, after rinsing out the 
water in which the sal soda was used. After scalding, 
the utensils should be inverted on the shelves without 
wiping and allowed to remain in this place until ready 
to use. This will leave the vessels in a practically sterile 
condition. Fourth, if it is possible to turn the inside of 
the vessels to the sun, in a place where there is no dust, 
then it is desirable to expose the utensils during the day 
to the strong germicidal action of the direct sun's rays. 

Clean, Wholesome Feed. Highly fermented and 
aromated feeds, like sour brewers grains and leeks should 
be rigidly withheld from dairy cows when anything like 
good flavored milk is sought. So readily does milk 
absorb the odors of feeds through the system of the ani- 
mal, that even good corn silage, when fed just previous 
to milking, will leave its odor in the milk. When fed 
after milking, however, no objection whatever can be 
raised against corn silage because not a trace of its odors 
is then found in the milk. Aromatic feeds of any kind 
should always be fed after milking. 

Pure Water. Since feeds are known to transmit their 
odors to the milk through the cow, it is reasonable to ex- 
pect water to do the same. Cows should, therefore, never 
be permitted to drink anything but pure, clean-flavored 
water. The need of pure water is further evident from 
the fact that it enters so largely into the composition of 
milk. 



SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION 247 

The water of ponds and stagnant streams is especially 
dangerous. Not only is such water injurious to the health 
of cows, but in wading into it, they become contaminated 
with numerous undesirable bacteria, some of which may 
later find their way into the milk. 

Strainers and Straining. Milk should be drawn so 
clean as to make it almost unnecessary to strain it. This 
operation is frequently done under the delusion that so 
long as it removes all visible dirt the milk has been 
entirely purified. The real harm, however, that comes 
from hairs and dust particles dropping into the milk is 
not so much in the hairs and dust particles themselves 
as in the millions of bacteria which they carry with them. 
These bacteria are so sniall that no method of straining 
will remove them. Straining can not even remove all 
of the dirt, because some of it will go in solution. 

A good strainer consists of two thicknesses of cheese 
cloth with a layer of absorbent cotton between. The 
strainer is to be placed on the can or vat into which the 
milk is to be strained and not on the milk pail. While 
a strainer like the above placed upon the milk pail, reduces 
the bacterial content slightly in the hands of careful milk- 
ers, it is believed that the slight advantage gained would 
be more than off-set by greater carelessness in milking; 
especially might this be true with ignorant milkers who 
are apt to think that the strainer will make up for any 
carelessness on their part. A cheese cloth strainer on 
the milk pail is worse than useless with any kind of 
milker. 

New sterilized cotton must be used at each milking 
and the cloths must be thoroughly washed and sterilized. 
Like the cotton, it is best to use the cloth but once. 

Dust=Free Air. Great precaution should be taken not 



248 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

to create any dust in the stable about milking- time, for 
this is certain to find its way into the milk. Cows should, 
therefore, never be bedded or receive any dusty feed just 
before or during milking. 

Dry roughage, such as hay and corn fodder, always 
contains a considerable amount of dust, and when fed 
before or during milking may so charge the air with dust 
as to make clean milk an impossibility. 

Moistening the floor and walls with clean water pre- 
vious to milking materially minimizes the danger of get- 
ting dust into the milk. A mistake not infrequently made 
even in the better class of dairies is to card and brush the 
cows just before milking. While this results in cleaner 
cows, the advantage thus gained is far more than off- 
set by the dirtier air, which, as will be shown later, 
materially increases the germ content of the milk. The 
carding and brushing should be done at least thirty min- 
utes before the milking commences. 

Clean Bedding. Clean shavings and clean cut straw 
should preferably be used for bedding. Cows stepping 
and lying on dirty bedding will soil themselves and create 
a dusty barn air. 

Milking With Dry Hands. A prolific source of 
milk contamination is the milking with wet hands. Where 
the milker wets his hands with milk, some of it is bound 
to drip into the pail, carrying with it thousands or mil- 
lions of bacteria, depending upon the degree of cleanliness 
of the milker's hands and the cow's udder. There is no 
excuse for the filthy practice of wet milking, since it 
is just as easy to milk with dry hands. 

Fore=Milk. Where the purest milk is sought, it is de- 
sirable to reject the first stream or two from each teat, 
as this contains many thousands of bacteria. The reason 



SANITARY MILK PRODUCTION 249 

for this rich development of germs is found in the favor- 
able conditions provided by the milk in the milk-ducts of 
the teats, to which the bacteria find readv access. 

Flies. Flies not only constitute a prolific but also a 
dangerous source of milk contamination. These pests 
visit places of the worst description and their presence 
in a dairy suggests a disregard for cleanliness. Of 414 
flies examined by the 'Bacteriologist of the Connecticut 
Station, the average number of bacteria carried per fly 
was one and a quarter millions. Flies should be rio-idly 
excluded from all places where they are apt to come in 
contact with the milk. 

Experimental Data. To show to what extent the 
bacterial content of milk may be reduced by adopting 
the precautions suggested in the foregoing pages, a few 
experimental data are herewith presented. 

In Bulletin No. 42 of the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment 
btation, Stocking reports the following: 

1. When the cows were milked before feedino- the 
number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,233; when milked im- 
mediately after feeding, the number of bacteria was 3,656, 
or three times as many. 

2. When the udder and flanks of the cows were wiped 
with a damp cloth, the number of bacteria per c. c. was 
716; when not wiped the number was 7,058, or ten times 
as great. 

3- When the cows were not brushed just before milk- 
ing the number of bacteria per c. c. was 1,207; when 
brushed just before milking, the number was 2,286, or 
nearly twice as great. 

^ 4. When students who had studied the production of 
clean milk did the milking, the number of bacteria per 
% c. was 914; when the milking was done by regular 



250 



CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 



unskilled milkers the number of bacteria was 2,846, or 
three times as great. 

Wiping- or washing udders before milking not only 
very materially reduces the bacterial content of the milk, 
but also lessens the amount of dirt to a very great extent. 
Frazer has shown that "the average weight of dirt which 
falls from muddy udders during mijking is ninety times 
as great as that which falls from the same udder after 
washing, and when the udder is slightly soiled it is 
eighteen times as great." 




Pig. 64.— Clean Milking. (From Da. Div., U. S. Dept. of A.) 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 



TRANSPORTATION OF CREAM. 



The two essentials in successful cream transportation 
are cleanliness and low temperature. It is possible to 




Fig. 65.— Milk can. 




Fig. 66.— Screw to can. 



keep cream in good condition for two days, if produced 
and handled under cleanly conditions and cooled directly 
after milking- to 50° F. or below. This low temperature 

251 



252 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



must be maintained when long keeping quality is desired. 
Cans. Various insulated cans are now upon the 
market and a number of these have been tested by the 
author. The tests showed that these cans possess about 
the same insulating effect as the felt jackets that are 
commonly wrapped around ordinary milk cans. The 
latter, as a rule, are preferred on account of their greater 
ease of handling. The insulated cans, however, have an 
advantage in the extra cover inside, 
which can be pushed to the top of the 
cream, thus preventing it from churn- 
ing when the cans are only partially 
filled. 

Hauling Cream. In gathering 
cream the most satisfactory results 
are secured by providing a separate 
can for each patron. The driver 
starts out with a load of clean, empty 
cans which replace those picked up 
along the route. This method gives the buttermaker 
an opportunity to examine each patron's cream, leaves 
in his hands the important matter of sampling and 
weighing and also insures clean cans for the patrons. 

Where there are too many small producers the above 
plan has the objection of requiring top many cans for 
the amount of cream collected. With producers of this 
kind the common method is to weigh and sample the 
cream at the farm and empty the same in large collecting 
cans. Wliere the patrons' cream is hauled to the cream- 
ery in separate cans, the latter must bear, upon brass 
plates, either the patrons' names or numbers corresponding 
to the names. 




Fig. 67.— Felt jacket. 



TRANSPORTATION OF CREAM 253 

Skimming Station Cream. In many localities where 
there is not sufficient milk to warrant the establishment 
of a creamery, skimming stations have been built which 
separate the cream from the milk and deliver it to a 
creamery for churning. Hundreds of such stations are 
scattered throughout the country and they are serving 
a most useful purpose. The cream from such stations 
should be delivered to the creamery daily. 

Shipping Cream. In shipping cream, have the name 

and address of the 
patron permanently 
marked in brass up- 
on both can and 
cover; also have it 
sewed or stitched on 
the felt jackets. This 
is necessary to insure 
the return of your 

Fig. 68.-Lead seal and seal press. ' own gOOds. The name 

and address will be put upon the cans and covers by the 
dealer from whom they are purchased, if so requested; 
or, in case unmarked 'cans are already on the premises, 
the brass plates with the name and address may be pur 
chased from dairy supply firms and placed upon the cans 
and covers by a local tinner. 

The empty cans should be washed before they are re- 
turned. This should be done for sanitary reasons as well 
as for the protection of the cans, which are short-lived 
unless washed and dried immediately after use. 

Another matter of importance in shipping is to have 
the cans full to prevent churning. 

It is necessary also to have the cans sealed to prevent 




254 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

tampering with the contents. The seaHng is easily ac- 
compUshed by means of lead seals and a seal press (Fig. 
68). 
Care of Cream During Transportation. During the 

summer months a great deal of cream is damaged while 
in transit to the creamery. If the cream is collected in 
wagons, the latter should be covered and provided with 
springs. The cans should be wrapped in felt jackets. 
When no jackets are used, the cans must be covered with 
heavy blankets. Too many precautions can not be taken 
to protect the cream from either very high or very low 
outside temperatures. 

The felt jackets are also desirable in shipping cream. 
Especially important is this where the cream is left ex- 
posed to the hot rays of the sun at the station platform, 
a matter of no unusual occurrence. 

Mode of Shipping. The usual way of shipping milk 
and cream is by express. In the main dairy sections 
baggage rates are available. These rates are lower than 
express rates and can be obtained nearly everywhere by 
special arrangement with the railroad companies. 

Shipping rates should always be obtained in advance 
of shipment and the charges should be prepaid. A con- 
siderable saving is certain to be effected by rigidly ad- 
hering to this practice. Insist upon getting the lowest 
rates possible. 

Frequency of Delivering Cream. To save cost in 
transportation, a practice that has been altogether too com- 
mon is to deliver cream only once, twice, or three times a 
week, when in no case it should be delivered fewer than 
four times a week. Indeed, it is well known that the 
best butter is possible only when the cream is delivered 
daily. 



TRANSPORTATION OP CREAM 255 

It is, of course, entirely possible to so cool cream as 
to keep it sweet for two days, but cream that has been 
kept cold this length of time invariably develops a more or 
less off-flavor. This is due to the development of certain 
classes of bacteria which are capable of growing at tem- 
peratures at which the growth of the lactic acid organ- 
isms is entirely checked. 

The greatest defect in the gathered cream system of 
buttermaking today is the too infrequent delivery of the 
cream. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

WATER SUPPLY EOR FARM AND CREAMERY. 

WATER SUPPLY FOR FARM. 

Importance of Pure Water. A great deal of disease 
in farm homes is directly traceable to infected water. 
Typhoid fever especially is so frequently caused by pol- 
luted well water that physicians at once look to this as 
the probable cause wherever this disease is found to ex- 
ist. 

Where wells infected with disease germs happen to 
exist on dairy farms, disease is not limited to the dairy- 
man's own family, but may spread through the products 
of the creamery. Many typhoid fever epidemics have 
been positively traced to milk which has become infected 
through water containing the disease germs. Nowhere 
is pure water so important, therefore, as upon dairy 
farms. 

The disease germs usually find their way into the milk 
through milk vessels which have been washed with in- 
fected water. The use of such water for washing cows' 
udders previous to milking may also be the means of 
infecting the milk supply. 

Construction of Well. In a properly constructed 
well, no water should enter it except near the bottom. 
This compels the water to pass through a thickness of 
earth sufficient to purify it where the wells are of a 
reasonable depth. 

Where there is no rock or hard clay and where the 
water can be had at a reasonable depth, the driven well, 

256 



WATER SUPPLY 



257 



commonly known as the Abyssinian tube well, Is the 
cheapest and one of the safest. This well is made by 
driving into the ground a water-tight iron tube, the lower 
end of which is pointed and perforated. 

In case rocks and hard clay must be penetrated, or 
great depth must be reached to secure water, the bored or 
drilled well, piped from top to bottom with water-tight 
iron pipes, will be found most satisfactory. 




Ordinary mfi 



Fig. 68.— Soil strata. (From Harrington's "Practical Hygiene.' ) 

Water from the upper pervious stratum should be 
avoided wherever possible, even with wells of the kind 
just described. Especially is this necessary where the 
wells are shallow. The purest water is obtained by sink- 
ing the well through an impervious stratum, like that 
shown in Fig. 68. 

The most dangerous well is the common dug well with 
pervious walls and so located as to permit seepage into 

17 



258 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



it from outhouses, barnyards and cesspools. Wells of 
this type are altogether too common on dairy farms. 




Fig. 69.— Source of well water contamination. (From Bui. 143 
Kan. Ex. Sta.) 

All wells, whatever their construction, must be provided 
with water-tight metallic or concrete covers to prevent 
the entrance of impurities into the shaft. 



WATER SUPPLY FOR CREAMERY. 

The matter of using clean, pure water for washing 
butter has hitherto not received the attention which this 
subject demands. There is no question that much butter 
is robbed of its rich, creamery flavor by too much wash- 
ing with impure water. Impure water materially affects 
the keeping quality of butter and may seriously affect 
its wholesomeness if infected with disease-producing 
organisms. In constructing a creamery well, therefore, 



WATER SUPPLY 259 

the same care should be taken as that ontHncd above for 
the construction of a farm well. 

Purifying Water by Filtration. Most people are 
familiar with the purifying action which water under- 
goes in its passage through sand, gravel, charcoal, etc. 
For purifying water used for washing butter, artificial 
filter beds constructed of such material have given excel- 
lent satisfaction. 

The filter can described in bulletin No. 71 from the 
Iowa Experiment Station is 48 inches high, 18 inches 
in diameter, and constructed of 22 gage galvanized iron. 
Beginning at the bottom the filtering material was placed 
in the can in the following order: (1)2 inches of small 
flint stones; (2) 22 inches of fine sand; (3) 12 inches of 
fine coke; (4) 9 inches of charcoal; (5) 2 inches of fine 
stone or coarse gravel. Two perforated plates are placed 
in the can, one near the bottom upon which the filtering 
material rests, the other on top of the fine sand. A third 
and concave plate is placed near the top with a hole in 
the center, which directs the water to the center of the 
filter bed. 

This can has a filtering capacity of 16 gallons per 
hour, and it is claimed that the filter does not need to be 
cleaned or renewed oftener than once in four months and 
possibly not this often. The cost of the can is $11.11. 

Filtration offers one of the cheapest methods of purify- 
ing water and is the method generally employed by cities 
that are dependent upon lakes for their water supply. 

Purification of Water by Heating. Water may be 
pasteurized in the same manner as cream. There is, how- 
ever, one objection to this method of purifying water, 
and that is the l?ad effect which it has on the pasteurizer. 



260 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



In the course of time a distinct layer of the mineral im- 
purities of the water will be deposited upon the walls of 
the pasteurizer in a manner similar to the formation of 
scale in the boiler. This mineral deposit will in time 
destroy the usefulness of the pasteurizer. 




Fig. 70.— Showing method of sterilizing wash water for butter. 



A satisfactory method of purifying water by heating 
is illustrated in Fig. 70. The water is pumped from 
the well into the galvanized iron tank, A, which is placed 
about 6 feet above the floor in the boiler room. This 
tank is tightly covered with the exception of a small 
vent in the cover. 

The water is heated by placing a series of galvanized 
iron pipes in the bottom of the tank through which all, 
or a part, of iht exhaust steam from the engine is con- 
ducted. In this way the expense of heating water will 



WATBR SUPPLY 261 

amount to nothing more than a sHght back pressure on the 
engine. 

The hot water may be drawn off from this tank when- 
ever desirable and cooled in the same manner as the 
cream, that is, by running it over the cream cooler B. 
From the cooler the water should be run into a tank in 
which it can be cooled to the desired temperature by 
means of ice water. The water as it leaves the cooler 
will have a temperature of from 60 to 65 degrees, so that 
only enough ice will be needed to reduce the temperature 
about 10 degrees. 

Fig. 70 also illustrates the method of heating water 
for the boiler and for general washing. 

Determining the Purity of Water. The author has 
found that a good idea of the purity of well water may 
be had by adding about ten c. c. of the water to one pint 
of sterile milk and keeping the inoculated milk at a tem- 
perature of about 85 degrees for 36 to 48 hours. If the 
water contains many putrefactive organisms it will pro- 
duce an odor in the milk which is akin to that of rotten 
eggs. A control sample of sterile milk should always be 
carried as a check on the efficiency with which the milk 
has been sterilized. Obviously pathogenic bacteria can 
not be detected by this method. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

SELUNG CREAM AND ICE CREAM. 
RELATIVE VALUE OF BUTTER, CREAM AND ICE CREAM. 

Creameries located near good markets can often dis- 
pose of a portion of their cream to good advantage in the 
forms of cream and ice cream. To illustrate this, let us 
assume that butter, cream and ice cream can be sold at the 
following prices : Butter, 25 cents per pound ; 30% cream, 
$1.00 per gallon; and ice cream made from 15% cream, 
$1.00 per gallon. Taking 100 pounds of 4% milk as a 
basis, this will have the following values when sold at the 
above prices : 

Value of Butter. One hundred pounds of 4% milk 
will yield 4 2-3 pounds of butter, because where up-to- 
date methods of creaming and churning are followed 
every pound of butter fat will make fully i 1-6 pounds 
of butter. Four and two-thirds pounds of butter at 25 
cents per pound are worth $1.17. Valuing buttermilk 
and skimmilk at one-half cent per pound, 47 cents 
should, be added to the $1.17 as the value of the skim- 
milk and buttermilk, making a total value of $1.64 for 
the 100 pounds of 4% milk. 

Value of Cream. One hundred pounds of 4% milk 
will make 13.33 pounds of 30% cream, as determined by 
the following rule : To find the number of pounds of 
cream from a given amount of milk, multiply the milk 
by its test and divide the product by the test of the cream. 
Thus, 100X4-^30=13.33, the number pounds of 
cream from 100 ^^ounds of 4% milk. 

262 



SELLING CREAM AND ICE CREAM 263 

Since a gallon of 30% cream weighs practically the 
same as a gallon of water (8.35 lbs.), the 13.33 pounds 
of cream are equal to 1.6 gallons, which, at $1.00 per gal- 
lon, are worth $1.60. Allowing one-half cent per pound 
for skimmilk, we have 43 cents as the value of the 86 
pounds of skimmilk, which gives a total value of $2.03 
for the 100 pounds of 4% milk. 

Value of Ice Cream. Since a gallon of 15% cream 
weighs 8.45 pounds, 100 pounds of 4% milk will make 
3.15 gallons of 15% cream (see rule for calculating 
cream, p. 262) or, allowing an overrun of 33 1-3%, 4.2 
gallons of ice cream. At $1.00 per gallon this is worth 
$4.20. To this must be added the value of yi, pounds of 
skimmilk, which, at one-half cent per pound, are worth 
Z7 cents, making a total value of $4.57 for the 100 pounds 
of milk made into ice cream. 

Summary. The preceding calculations show that 100 
pounds of 4% milk are worth. 

$1.64 when sold as butter, 
2.03 when sold as cream, 
4.57 when sold as ice cream. 

It is to be remembered that the above figures show the 
relative gross returns at the prices given. The net re- 
turns will vary, depending largely upon the cost of 
marketing and the quantity of cream handled. In the 
case of ice cream, 20 to 25 cents per gallon must be de- 
ducted as the cost of the materials used in its manufac- 
ture. 

SELLING CREAM. 

In marketing cream only the sweetest and best flavored 
should be selected. Its temperature should at once be 



264 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

reduced below 50° F. When transported long distances 
in bulk, the cream should be handled according to the 
method outlined in chapter XXVIII, Transportation of 
Cream. 

All cream sold must be guaranteed to contain a 
definite fat content. The process by which cream is 
brought to a definite percentage of fat is known as 
"standardizing" cream. 

STANDARDIZING CREAM. 

Reducing Cream with Sl<;immilk. When a definite 
quantity of standardized cream is called for, determine 
first the amount of original cream (cream as it leaves the 
separator) required according to the following rule: 

Rule: Multiply the number of pounds of standardized 
cream called for by its test and divide the product by the 
test of the original cream. 

The difference between the amounts of original and 
standardized cream represents the amount of skimmilk re- 
quired. 

Problem: How many pounds each of 45% cream and 
skimmilk (zero test) are required to make 60 pounds of 
18% cream? 

Applying the above rule we get, 

(60 X 18) -^ 45 = 24 = No. lbs. of original cream. 

60 — 24 = 36 = No. lbs. of skimmilk. 

Mixing Two Milks or Two Creams, or Milk and 
Cream, of Different Richness. In the preceding for- 
mula the test of the skimmilk was considered zero. 
When milks or creams of different tests are mixed the 
calculation becomes more difiicult. Pearson, however, 
has devised a method by which calculations of this kind 
are very much simplified. This method is as follows : 



SELLING CREAM AND ICE CREAM 



265 



Draw a rectangle with two diagonals, as shown below. 
At the left hand corners place the tests of the milks or 
creams to be mixed. In the center place the richness 
desired. At the right hand corners place the diflPerences 
between the two numbers in line with these corners. The 
number at the upper right hand corner represents the 
number of pounds of milk or cream to use with the rich- 
ness indicated in the upper left hand corner. Likewise 
the number at the lower right hand corner represents the 
number of pounds of milk or cream to use with the 
richness indicated in the lower left hand corner. 

Example: How many pounds each of 30% cream and 
3.5% milk required to make 25% cream? 



50% 



33% 




Z\.^ LBS. 



>LBS>. 



21.5, the difference between 3.5 and 25, is the number 
of pounds of 30% cream needed; and 5, the difiference 
between 25 and 30, is the number of pounds of 3.5% 
milk needed. 

From the ratio of milk and cream thus found, any 
definite quantity is easily made up. If, for example, 300 
pounds of 25% cream is desired, the number of pounds 
each of 30% cream and 3.5% milk is determined as fol- 
lows : . 



266 



CRBAMBRY BUTTER MAKING 



21.5 + 5 = 26.5 

21.5 , , ^ , 
X 300 = 243.4, the number of pounds 

5 of 30% cream. 

X 300 = 56.6, the number of pounds 
■ of 3-5% iTiilk. 



26.5 



MAKING AND MARKETING ICE CREAM. 

For the best quaHty of ice cream use cream containing 

about 20% butterfat. Put the cream into a tin 

can and pasteurize it as follows: Place the can in hot 

water and stir slowly, but constantly, while heating. As 

soon as the temperature reaches 

150° F. remove the cream from 

the hot water and let it stand 

at room temperature from ten 

to fifteen minutes, then cool 

quickly to near the freezing 

temperature. 

Pasteurization improves the 
quality of the ice cream, giving 
it a much smoother body, and 
also destroys practically all of 
the bacteria. 

Vanilla Flavor. Vanilla is 
the most popular of ice cream 
flavors. The best vanilla flavor 
is obtained by using the best 
Mexican vanilla bean. Not only 
does this bean give the best 
flavor, but it costs less than half 



Fig. 71.— Vanilla beans. 



SELLING CREAM AND ICE CREAM 267 

as much as the vanilla extracts. The best beans are very 
oily and pliable, about nine inches long, very fragrant 
and closed, leaving none of the seeds exposed. 

The flavor is prepared by cutting the beans in small 
pieces and grinding them with loaf sugar. Immediately 
after grinding, the vanilla sugar is bottled and corked 
and set aside until ready for use. On an average one 
and one-half beans are required per gallon of cream. 

Vanilla Ice Cream. In pasteurizing, as soon as the 
temperature reaches 150° F. add sugar at the rate of one 
and three- fourths pounds per gallon of cream. This 
amount includes the vanilla sugar. Next add the vanilla 
sugar, thoroughly mix, and just before cooling, strain 
through one thickness of cheese cloth if the seeds are to 
be retained in the crcim, and through four thicknesses if 
they are to be excluded. The sugar will dissolve much 
more quickly and the flavor will be more thoroughly ab- 
stracted from the ground beans when both are added 
while the cream is still hot. Hot cream also strains far 
more quickly than cold. 

Freezing. Crush ice to moderate fineness in a strong 
wooden box with a heavy round ctick shaped like a potato 
masher. Pack this around the freezing can, using three 
parts of ice to one of ice cream salt. Start the freezer 
as soon as the cream begins to freeze. There is danger 
of churning the cream when the freezer is started while 
the cream is still warm. As soon as it becomes difficult 
to turn the freezer longer, remove the beater, scrape all 
cream from it and pack the cream closely in the can. 
The cream may now be packed at once into small retail 
packing cans, or the brine may be removed, more crushed 
ice and salt added, and the cream kept in the freezer until 
needed for packing for retail trade. 



268 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Lemon Ice Cream. In making lemon flavored ice 
cream use the best paper-wrapped lemons, free from any 
signs of decay. Wash the lemons lightly in cold water 
and grate off the outer, yellowish portion of the rind, 
being careful not to grate off any of the white por- 
tion which is very bitter. Mix the grated rind with 
sugar, using one ounce of sugar for each lemon rind. 
Next cut the lemons in two and squeeze out the juice, 
removing any seeds that may have dropped in from the 
squeezer. Mix the juice wntli the sugared rind and add 
orange juice to the mixture, using one orange to every 
five lemons. Allow the mixture to stand for about one 
hour, stirring it occasionally, and then strain. Use at 
the rate of one and one-half gills (4 gills = i pint) per 
gallon of cream. The flavor may be beaten into the cream 
after it is frozen, or it may be added when the cream is 
partially frozen. The latter is the more convenient 
method, since the paddles in the freezer will accomplish 
the mixing. 

In making lemon ice cream, use at the rate of two 
pounds of sugar per gallon of cream, instead of one and 
three fourths as for vanilla ice cream. In other respects 
the cream is treated and handled the same as in making 
vanilla ice cream. 

Packing Ice Cream. Cream that is to be retailed 
within a day after freezing should be packed into one- 
quart, two-quart, one-gallon, or larger, packing cans im- 
mediately after freezing. The packing cans should be 
clean, sterile, and cool when the cream is packed into them. 
Fill them by means of a large spoon or dipper, thoroughly 
packing the cream so as to leave no air spaces. Put 
the cover on securely and thoroughly coat the edge with 



SELLING CREAM AND ICE CREAM 



269 



butter to keep out brine. This done, place the packed 
can of cream in the proper sized tub and pack with ice 
and salt the same as for freezing, using however most 
of the salt near the top. It is also better to have the 
ice somewhat coarser for packing than for freezing. To 
eliminate all danger of brine entering the can, it is neces- 
sary to have a hole in the tub at a point, say, one inch 
below the top of the can within it. 





Fig. 72.— Packing can. 



Fig. 73. -Packing tub. 



If some of the cream is to be held longer than a day 
after freezing, it is better to leave it packed in the freezer 
until called for by the consumer. Cream can be kept 
frozen in bulk more conveniently than in small packing 
cans, and will require also less ice and salt. Where ice 
cream is kept in bulk as here indicated, it should not be 
kept frozen too hard, else there will be difficulty in getting 
it packed solidly into the small cans. 



270 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Ice cream must not be allowed to melt in the packing 
cans. Remove the brine and repack with ice and salt 
often enough to prevent melting. In the melting process 
the water separates and this forms undesirable crystals 
when the cream is re-frozen. 

Where cream is wholesaled in five and ten gallon lots 
and where the ice water is removed from the tubs and the 
latter repacked just before shipping or delivering, the 
cans need not be sealed with butter nor need there be 
any opening in the tubs except at the bottom. 

Overrun. This refers to the excess of ice cream over 
cream. Anything that tends to incorporate and hold air 
in cream conduces to a large overrun. Thus excessive 
beating of the cream during freezing mixes a great deal 
of air with it, and hence, increases the overrun. A high 
viscosity of the cream holds the air incorporated during 
freezing. Fresh separator cream has a low viscosity, that 
is, does not whip well, hence will not swell up so much 
in freezing as cream that has been kept cold for twenty- 
four hours. Pasteurized cream also has a low viscosity, 
but this will improve by keeping the cream at a low tem- 
perature a number of hours before freezing. 

With pasteurized cream and a speed of about eighty 
revolutions per minute, there will be an overrun of from 
twenty-five to thirty-three per cent. With unpasteurized 
cream and a high speed of the freezer, the overrun may 
be increased to fifty per cent. 

Large overruns are always obtained at the expense of 
quality. 

Marketing Ice Cream. The essential thing in build- 
ing up a good ice cream trade is to make the best product 
possible. The market is glutted with cheap, inferior ice 



SELLING CREAM AND ICE CREAM 



271 



cream, and the call now is for a 
high grade product. Fortunately 
the public is beginning to realize 
that there is positive danger in 
eating ice cream made from old, 
stale milk or cream, and the pub- 
lic also seems to begin to under- 
stand that the bulk of ice cream 
is made with so-called thickeners, 
like gelatine, corn starch, tapioca, 
arrow root, and others. Many 
so-called ice creams contain no 
cream whatever. The highest 
quality of i'ce cream contains 
nothing but good, pure cream, 
sugar and flavoring. 
When hauled long distances or shipped, the packing 

can should be placed in a covered tub like that shown in 

Fig. 74, and enough ice and salt packed around it to keep 

it from melting. 

Where ordinary open tubs are used, they should be 

covered with burlap or heavy paper. 




Fig. 74. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

CREAMERY MECHANICS. 
THE STEAM BOILER. 

There are three principal types of boilers in use at the 
present time: (i) water tube boilers; (2) internally fired, 
or marine, boilers; and (3) fire tube boilers. 

In the water tube boiler the water circulates through 
tubes which receive the heat directly from the furnace. 
These tubes communicate with an iron cylinder, placed 
directly over them, which serves the purpose of a steam 
reservoir. Boilers of this type are rapidly gaining favor 
as economical steam generators. They occupy somewhat 
more space,- however, than the other types of boilers. 

In the marine boiler, the firing is done in the shell, the 
entire fire box being surrounded by water. The return 
heat passes through a series of tubes which nearly sur- 
round the upper half of the fire box. The entire boiler 
consists of a round iron cylinder supported on short legs. 
It is heavily covered with asbestos which dispenses with 
the brick work necessary with the fire tube boilers. 

The marine boiler is neat and attractive and has grown 
much in popularity in recent years. As its name implies 
this t}pe of boiler has been mostly used on the sea, but 
is now to be seen nearly everywhere in power plants. 

The common form of creamery boiler belongs to the 
fire tube kind. Fig. 75 illustrates this boiler partly laid 
in brick. The grates, or iron bars, upon v^hich the fire is 
placed are seen in the front half of the brick work. The 

272 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 



273 




18 



274 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



heat and smoke pass along the underside of the boiler 
toward the rear and return through the fire tubes. To 
prevent radiation of heat the brick work must be built 
up to cover the entire boiler. The fire box must be con- 
structed of the best fire brick. 





Fig. 76. -Glass 
gauge. 



Fig. 77. -Gauge 
cocks. 



The various boiler accessories will be described in the 
following paragraphs. 

Glass Gauge. This is a glass tube attached to the 
side of the boiler to indicate the height of the water in 
it. The gauge is represented in Fig. 76. It is so attached 
that its lowest point is about two inches above the highest 
part of the fire line of the boiler, its entire length being 
usually about fifteen inches. The cock at the bottom is 
used to blow out the sediment that is liable to block the 
opening between it and the boiler. When this occurs 
the gauge becomes a false indicator. Frequent blowing 
out is therefore necessary. The cock next to the blow 
out admits the water from the boiler. The cock above 
this admits the steam. When the glass breaks shut off 
the water first, then the steam. Always have a few extra 
glasses on hand so that the broken one can be immediately 
replaced. Owing to its tendency to clog, the gauge can 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 275 

not always be relied upon, hence the use of water cocks 
placed next to the glass gauge. 

Water Gauge Cocks. Fig. yy shows the attachments 
of these cocks. The water level should be kept as near 
as possible to the middle cock. It should never go below 
the lower cock, nor above the upper. These cocks should 
be opened many times during the day and . so long as 
steam issues from the upper and water from the lower 
cock, the water level is all right. 

Steatn Gauge. This shows the number of pounds of 
steam pressure per square inch on the boiler by means 
of a pointer moving around a dial. Below the dial is a 
loop which contains water to prevent injury to the gauge 
from the hot steam. The steam gauge is liable to get 
out of order and will then fail to show the true pressure. 
Such a condition is indicated by the safety valve. 

Safety Valve. This is placed on top of the steam 
chamber and permits the escape of steam when the steam 
pressure reaches the danger limit. It is an indispensable 
boiler attachment as without it the boiler would be a 
dangerous thing. There are two kinds of safety valves, 
the "pop" and "ball and lever" types. The former is 
considered the more desirable because it is not so easily 
tampered with. Both can be set to blow off at different 
pressures. 

Water Feed Apparatus. There are two ways of feed- 
ing water into a boiler, namely, with injectors and with 
pumps. 

Injector. This important boiler accessory, illustrated 
in Fig. 78, is attached to the side of the boiler. It utilizes 
the steam directly from the boiler for forcing water into 
it against a pressure as great as that which sends it forth. 
The principle which makes this possible may be stated 



276 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

'm 




Fig. 78.- Injector. 

as follows : Steam issuing from a boiler under 70 pounds 
pressure has a velocity of 1,700 feet per second. When 
steam with this high velocity strikes the combining tube 
A, it produces suction which in turn induces a flow of 
water. As soon as the water enters the combining tube 
it is given motion by the high velocity of the steam, 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 277 

which immediately condenses and moves with the water 
into the boiler at a comparatively low velocity. The 
energy, therefore, by which steam can force water into the 
boiler against its own pressure is the latent heat resulting 
from the condensation of the steam in the combining 
tube. 

From this it must be evident that the efficiency of the 
injector is dependent upon the completeness with which 
the steam condenses. This is clearly proved by every 
day practical experience. When, for instance, the feed 
water is too hot, the steam pressure too high, or the 
steam is wet, the injector fails to work properly because 
the steam does not sufficiently condense when it strikes 
the feed water. 

Starting the Injector. This is done by opening the 
supply water valve one or two turns, then the steam valve 
wide. If steam issues from the overflow admit a little 
more water; if water overflows admit less. 

Care of Injector. An injector will become coated 
with sediment or scale the same as the boiler and must, 
therefore, be frequently cleaned. This is best done by 
immersing it in a solution of one part muriatic acid and 
ten parts water. Allow to remain in this solution until 
the scale becomes soft enough to permit washing out. A 
clean injector rarely causes trouble but if trouble does 
occur it may be due to: (i) low steam pressure; (2) too 
hot water; (3) leaks in pipes and injector; (4) clogging 
of water pipe; (5) wet steam; (6) poor working condi- 
tion of check and overflow valves; (7) clogging of feed 
pipe where it enters the boiler. 

The injector is commonly used to feed water into the 
boiler because it is cheap and simple, and occupies little 
space. 

Pumps. There are two kinds: (i) those run with 



278 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

steam directly, and (2) those run by the engine. The 
latter is the more economical and handles hot water with 
less trouble. It has one disadvantage, however, and that 
is it does not work unless the engine is running. With 
good pumps, especially those run by the engine, good 
work may be expected when the feed water has been 
heated to 200° F. with the exhaust steam from the engine. 
With the injector such high temperatures are not per- 
missible, hence the greater economy of the pump. The 
great saving of fuel by feeding water hot into the boiler 
is illustrated by e»x;periments made by Jacobus which 
show that with a direct acting pump 12.1% fuel is saved 
by heating the feed water from 60° to 200° before pump- 
ing it into the boiler. With injectors the feed water used 
usually has a temperature of about 60° F. 

STEAM „ 

Water is practically a non-conductor of heat. This 
means that it cannot conduct its heat to its neighboring 
particles. When, therefore, heat is applied to the bottom 
of a vessel containing water, the particles at the bottom 
do not communicate their heat to the particles next above 
them, but expand and rise, cool ones taking their places. 
This gives rise to convection currents which tend to equal- 
ize the temperature of the water in the vessel. When the 
water has reached a uniform temperature of 212° F. the 
particles begin to fly off at the surface in the form of 
vapor, and this we call steam. To generate steam in a 
boiler, then, it is necessary to impart to the water in it 
a considerable amount of heat, which is produced by 
burning fuel in the fire box. 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 279 



FIRING OF BOILER. 



The immense amount of heat stored in wood and coal 
is rendered effective in the boiler by burning (combus- 
tion). To understand how to fire a boiler intelligently we 
must first learn what the process of burning consists of. 

Process of Burning. Anything will burn when the 
temperature has been raised high enough to cause the 
oxygen of the air to unite with it. Thus, in ''striking" 
a match the temperature is raised high enough by the 
friction produced to cause the match to burn. The burn- 
ing match will produce heat enough to ignite the kind- 
ling, which in turn, produces the necessary heat to ignite 
the wood or coal in the fire box of the boiler. Burning 
may, therefore, be defined as the union of the oxygen of 
the air with the fuel. In burning a pound of coal or wood 
a definite amount of air must be admitted to furnish the 
necessary oxygen for complete combustion. When oxygen 
is lacking part of the fuel passes out of the chimney un- 
burned in the form of gases. If, on the other hand, too 
much air is admitted the excess simply passes through 
the chimney, absorbing heat as it passes through the 
boiler. The problem of firing becomes, therefore, a diffi- 
cult one. 

Burning Coal and Wood. When hard coal is burned 
the fire should be thin. A thickness of three to four 
inches on the grates gives very satisfactory results. For 
best results with soft coal a thickness of six to seven 
inches is recommended. Whenever fresh coal is added 
it should be placed near the front and the hot coals pushed 
back. 

In case wood is burned the fire box should be kept well 
filled, care being necessary to keep every part of the grate 
well covered. 



280 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



GENERAL POINTERS ON FIRING. 

1. Boilers newly set should not be fired within two or 
three weeks after setting and then the firing should be 
very gradual for several days to allow the masonry to 
harden without cracking. 

2. Never fire a boiler before determining the water 
level by trying the water gauge cocks. You can not 
entirely rely upon glass gauges, floats, and water alarms. 

3. When starting the fire, open the upper water gauge 
cock and do not close it until steam begins to issue from 
it. This permits the escape of confined air. 

4. Kindle the fire on a thin layer of coal to protect 
the grate bars. 

5. Always examine the safety valve before starting a 
fire. 

6. When starting the fire all drafts should be open. 

7. The firing should be gradual until all parts of the 
boiler have been heated. 

8. Never allow any part of the grate bars to become 
uncovered during firing. 

9. Frequently clean the ash pit to prevent overheating 
of grates from the hot cinders underneath. 

10. The coals upon the grates should not be larger 
than a man's first. 

11. Remember that firing up a boiler rapidly is apt to 
cause leaks. 

12. Remember that too little water in the boiler causes 
leaks and explosions. 

13. Remember that soot and ashes on heating surfaces 
always waste fuel. 

14. When fire is drawn close dampers, and doors of 
furnace and ash oit. 



CRBAMBKV MECHANICS ^81 

15. Never open or close valves when the water is too 
low in the boiler, but immediately bank the fire with ashes 
or earth. Opening the safety valve at such a time will 
throw the water from the heated surfaces, resulting in 
overheating and possibly in explosions. 

16. Use the poker as little as possible in firing. 

17. Keep the grate bars free from "clinkers." 

18. When the steam pressure goes too high, start the 
pump, open the doors of the furnace and close the ash 
pit. 

19. A steady and even fire saves fuel. 

GENERAI, CARE OF BOILER. 

1. Always close the steam and water valves of the 
glass gauge when you leave the building for half an 
hour or more. 

2. Water gauges should frequently be blown out and 
cleaned. 

3. Keep the exterior of the boiler dry. Moisture will 
corrode and weaken it. 

4. The boiler should be blown off under low pressure 
every two or three days. 

5. A boiler that is not used for some time should be 
emptied and dried. If this cannot readily be done, fill 
it full of water to which a little soda has been added. 

6. Frequently examine the safety valve to see that it 
is in good working order. 

7. Do not empty boiler while brick work is very hot. 

8. Never pump cold water into a hot boiler. Leaks 
and explosions may be the result. 

9. Leaky gauges, cocks, valves, and flues should be 
repaired at once. 



282 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

lo. Do not fail to examine the pressure gauge fre- 
quently. 

IT. It is good policy to have two means of feedinf:^ a 
boiler. The pump or injector may get out of order and 
cause delay and danger. 

12. Feed pumps and injectors need frequent cleaning 
to keep them in good working order. 

13. Look out for air leaks. If air is admitted any- 
where except through the grates serious waste may re- 
sult. Such leaks are to be looked for in broken doors and 
poor brick work. 

14. Flues should be cleaned often, especially if soft 
coal is burned. This will prevent over heating of metal, 
at the same time save fuel. 

15. Do not allow filth to accumulate around the boiler 
or boiler room. 

16. Keep all the bright work about the boiler ''shiny." 

17. Do not fail to empty the boiler every week or two 
and refill with fresh water. 

18. Have your steam gauge tested at least twice a 
year. 

BOII^KR INCRUSTATION. 

In all boilers after a period of use, there is deposited 
upon the parts below the water level a scale or sediment 
known as boiler incrustation. 

Cause of Scale. The formation of scale is due to 
the impurities contained in the feed water. When impure 
water is fed into the boiler the impurity first manifests 
itself in the form of scum on top of the boiling water. 
The heavier particles of the scum slowly unite and sink 
to the bottom where they first appear as mud. By con- 
tinued exposure to high temperature, this mud gradually 



CRBAMURV MECHANICS 283 

forms into a hard impervious scale which nsrally con- 
sists largely of lime. 

Objection to Scale, i. The excessive formation of 
boiler scale is the immediate cause of most boiler explo- 
sions. The scale acts as a non-conductor of heat, so that 
in cases where the capacity of the boiler is severely taxed, 
the metal becomes overheated, thus materially weakening 
it. The scale is, therefore, not only dangerous, but by 
overheating the metal, also materially shortens the life 
of the boiler. 2. Another most serious objection to scale 
is its wastefulness of fuel. This becomes evident when 
we note that the heat before reaching the water must first 
be conducted through a non-conducting layer of incrusta- 
tion. 

Prevention of Scale. Since nearly all water used for 
boilers is more or less impure, it is evident that to prevent 
scale, boilers must receive frequent cleaning. How often 
this needs to be done is, of course, dependent upon the 
amount and character of the impurity in the water. Boilers 
are kept clean in three different ways : ( i ) by blowing off 
at low pressure, (2) by cleaning through man hole, and 
(3) by using boiler compounds. 

( I.) By blowing the boiler off at low pressure most of 
the mud will be blown out. But care must be taken 
that the pressure is not above ten pounds and that there is 
no more fire in the fire box, otherwise the mud, instead 
of flowing out with the water, will bake on and form 
scale. 

(2.) A good way of removing mud is to allow the 
boiler to cool off and then run a rubber hose through the 
man hole. By working the hose and forcing water 
through it the sediment can be removed. 

(3.) Boiler compounds are used to keep boilers free 



284 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

from scale. The kind of compound to be used is deter- 
mined by the character of the impurities of the water. 
Most creameries use well water for the boiler and the 
chief impurity in this is lime. The best compound for 
water of this kind is soda. Well water contains the lime 
in widely different proportions. In order, therefore, to 
ascertain the proportion of soda to feed water the fol- 
lowing method is recommended by Hawkins : 

*'i. Add one sixteenth part of an ounce of soda to a 
gallon of the feed water and boil it. 2. When the sedi- 
ment thrown down by the boiling has settled to the bottom 
of the kettle, pour the clear water off and add one-half 
drachm of soda to this. Now, if the water remains clear, 
the soda which was put in has removed the lime. But 
if it becomes muddy, the second addition of soda is neces- 
sary." In this way the amount of soda to be added to 
the feed water can be calculated with sufficient accuracy. 

Tan bark is very efficient in removing boiler scale but 
may injure the iron. 

Kerosene answers the same purpose but renders the 
steam unfit for use in the creamery. 

When the water is salt or acid, a piece of metallic zinc 
occasionally placed in the boiler will prevent corrosion. 
Water of this kind can usually be told by its corrosive 
effect on copper and brass. Acid water can also be de- 
tected with blue litmus paper, which it turns red. 

WET AND DRY STEAM. 

Wet steam. This is steam holding in suspension 
extremely small particles of water which are thrown off 
from the water surface while steam is generating. The 
following are the causes of wet steam : 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 285 

1. Impure water in the boiler. 

2. Too much water in the boiler. 

3. Too little evaporating surface for the amount of 
steam used. This is one of the chief objections to upright 
and too small boilers. 

4. Violent agitation of the water in the boiler caused 
by too rapid a generation of steam. 

Wet steam causes "priming" and is wasteful of heat. 

Dry Steam. This is saturated steam holding no water 
mechanically in suspension. High steam pressure and a 
large steam space above the water level are conducive 
to dry steam. 

HORSE POWER OF BOILERS. 

A horse power of a steam boiler is thirty pounds of feed 
water at a temperature of 100° F. converted into steam 
in one hour at 70 pounds gauge pressure. 

The horse power of a boiler may be approximately 
calculated by dividing the total square feet of heating 
surface in the shell, heads, and tubes, by fifteen. 

SMOKE STACK. 

It is difficult to state the exact size of a smoke stack 
for a given boiler because conditions vary so much. It 
is evident that it must be longer for a boiler placed at the 
foot of a hill than for the same boiler placed on top of 
the hill. 

A smoke stack for a 25 H. P. boiler should be about 
one foot square inside and from 30 to 40 feet high and 
built of brick. A small smoke stack which affords in- 
adequate draught is wasteful of fuel and gives rise to 
much trouble in firing. 



286 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



THE STEAM ENGINE. 



The engine may be defined as a machine which con- 
verts heat into mechanical power. This heat is obtained 




in the form of steam under pressure from the burning 
fuel in the boiler. A common form of creamery engine 
is illustrated in Fig. 79- 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 



287 



Engine Foundation. The engine to run smoothly 
must be placed upon a solid foundation constructed of 
hard burned brick laid in cement. Where the ground 
is soft and loose the brick work must be built upon a 
foundation of coarse stones laid in cement. 



^^ir^^M 




Fig. 80.— Steam cylinder and valve chest. 



PARTS OF THE ENGINE:. 

Steam Cylinder and Valve Chest. These are the 

vital parts of the engine. A section through the cylinder 
and valve chest is shown in Fig. 80. A represents the 
cylinder part, B the valve chest. 

Parts of A: i, cylinder heads; 2, bore of cylinder; 
3, counter bore ; 4, flanges ; 5, stuffing box ; 6, gland. 

Parts of B : 7 and y\ steam ports ; 8, exhaust port ; 



288 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



9, valve stem gland ; lo, valve stem stuffing box ; ii, valve 
chest cover; 12, steam inlet; 13, slide valve. 

Working of Piston. The arrows in the preceding cut 
show the course which the steam takes in the valve chest 
and cylinder. As the steam enters at port 7' the piston is 




Fig. 81.— Piston and ring. 



pushed back and the exhaust steam escapes through port 
7. The slide valve i'3 gradually moves forward while the 
piston moves back so that both ports will be closed when 
the piston has traveled about four-fifths of the distance 
of the cylinder. There is, however, enough energy stored 
in the fly wheel or drive pulley to carry the piston 
beyond the dead center when steam will enter the cylinder 
through port 7, causing the piston to move forward while 
the exhaust steam escapes through port 7'. When the 
piston has traveled about four-fifths of the distance of the 
cylinder both ports are again closed, so that at every revo- 
lution of the crank the dead center is passed twice. 

Fig. 81 shows the piston and piston ring. 

The piston must fit the cylinder tight enough to prevent 
leakage of steam, yet not so tight as to cause undue 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 



289 



friction. A good way to find out whether a piston leaks 
steam is to put the engine on the dead center on the 
crank end. Then take off the cyHnder cover on the head 
end and admit steam back of the piston. If the piston 
leaks, steam may be seen escaping between the packing 
ring and the wall of the cylinder. 




Fig. 82.— Connecting rod end. 

Crosshead. This connects the piston rod and connect- 
ing rod and serves to guide the former so as to have 
it move in a straight line. 

Cannecting Rod. This forms the connection between 
the crosshead and crank. The crank end of the rod is 
shown in Fig. 82. i represents the crank pin key; 2, 
crank brasses, and 3, burr that fixes the crank pin key. 

Crank. This rotates the shaft of the engine and per- 
mits the change of rectilinear into circular motion. 

Eccentric. This forms a sort of crank which, as its 
name implies, does not turn around a true center. It 
opens and closes the steam ports in the valve chest by 
means of the eccentric rod which forms the connection 
between it and the slide valve. 

Setting the Slide Valve. The slide valve should be 

19 



290 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

so set on the valve stem that its edges will pass each 
steam port an equal amount during a full revolution of 
the engine. If not so set, the valve should be moved, by 
loosening the nuts on the valve stem, until the correct 
position is reached. 

The next thing to do is to place the engine on its true 
center with the outward stroke. Now turn the eccentric 
upon the shaft in the direction in which the engine is to 
run until the valve has uncovered the port sufficiently for 
the required lead, which should be about one-sixteenth 
of an inch. 

Governor. This device governs or regulates the speed 
of the engine by controlling the inlet of steam in to the 
cylinder. 

There are two kinds of governors : one is known as the 
automatic cut-off which consists of centrifugal weights 
placed in the fly wheel, which vary the point of cut-off 
by revolving the governor eccentric upon the shaft. With 
governors of this kind the steam is entirely cut off when 
the speed gets too high, while with the other form of gov- 
ernor the steam is throttled. The "throttle" or "ball" 
governor is more common on creamery engines than the 
automatic cut-off. Fig. 83 illustrates the working of the 
ball governor. The important parts are: i, governor 
balls; 2, pulley; 3, stem; 4, valve discs; 5, stuffing box; 
and 6, valve seats. As the speed of the engine increases 
the balls are thrown farther out and the valve discs come 
nearer the valve seats, thus throttling or reducing the 
amount of steam that enters the cylinder. 

The automatic cut-off is considered the more economi- 
cal of the two governors though it is somewhat more 
difficult to regulate. Most engines now made are of the 
automatic cut-off type. 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 



291 




Fig. 33.— Governor. 



292 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 






.ijsoi 




Lubricator. This device serves to supply oil to the 
cylinder. There are various forms of lubricators one 
of which is illustrated in Fig. 84. The working of this 
lubricator may readily be understood by following the 
course of the steam as indicated by the arrows. 

The steam condenses in the 
small pipe, enters the bottom 
of the oil cup where the con- 
densed steam displaces an 
equal quantity of oil, which, 
being lighter than water, is 
forced up and overflows into 
a pipe placed inside the lubri- 
cator whence it may be seen to 
escape in drops through the 
glass tube. From'here it pass- 
es with the steam into the 
cylinder. 

Pipes and Piping. The 
main pipe is that which con- 
ducts the steam from the boiler to the engine. This pipe 
should be well covered with non-conductor to prevent 
loss of heat. 

A very efficient and inexpensive pipe covering is made 
by mixing wood sawdust and common starch, using them 
in the proportion to form a thick paste. Such a paste wil' 
adhere perfectly to wrought or cast iron pipes when ab- 
solutely free from grease. A thickness of one inch is 
sufficient. 

The exhaust steam pipe carries away the steam after it 
has been used in the cylinder. To make the best use 
of the heat that remains in exhaust steam, this pipe 
should first be carried through a water tank located in the 



^sj 



Fig. 84.— Lubricator. 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 293 

boiler room, thence outside the building. The exhaust 
steam will be ample to heat all the water needed for 
washing as well as that used for the boiler. A great deal 
of fuel can be saved in a creamery by properly utilizing 
the exhaust steam. A drip cock will have to be placed 
at the bottom turn of the exhaust pipe to permit drain- 
ing it. 

When the engine is placed in the creamery proper, it is 
very essential to have cylinder drain pipes to carry away 
the water and partially condensed steam that is found in 
the cylinder when the engine is started. 

In piping avoid turns as much as possible and provide 
exhaust pipes of ample size. 

care: and management oi^ engine:. 

1. It is essential to have all parts of the engine well 
oiled, using nothing but the best oil. 

2. Keep the engine clean. The shiny parts should be 
brightened at least once a day. 

3. Keep the engine well "keyed up." At both ends 
of the connecting rod are keys, one of which is shown in 
Fig. 51. The purpose of these keys is to keep the brass 
boxes tight enough to prevent undue play. The "keying" 
consists in loosening the burrs next to the key and then 
tapping the latter lightly until the unnecessary play is 
taken up. Care must be taken, however, not to get the 
brasses too tight or a hot box will be the result. "Pound- 
ing" is usually caused by not having the keys properly 
set. It is also caused by wet steam and water in the 
cylinder. 

4. Keep stuffing boxes carefully packed to prevent 
leakage of steam. The packing should be treated with 
graphite or good cylinder oil and packed firmly around 



294 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

the rod, but it must not be too tight, otherwise power 
is lost in friction. If the rod has become scored or rusty, 
smooth it with emery cloth before packing. 

5. The packing rings in the piston should be kept in 
good repair. The clicking noise sometimes heard in 
cylinders is due either to the packing ring wiping over 
the edge of the counter bore or to its being too narrow 
for the groove in which it is placed. A ring is needed 
that fits this groove properly. If the packing ring is too 
small for the cylinder bore it should be set out by peneing 
or by tightening the setting out bolts. 

6. When gumminess is noticeable in any of the bear- 
ings, remove same with benzine and use a purer oil. 

7. When the engine "races" look for the trouble in 
the governor. 

8. Thoroughly drain cylinder when not in use. This 
must be done in the winter to prevent freezing. 

HORSE POWER OF ENGINE. 

The horse power of an engine is calculated from the 
following formula: 

^^ ^ p X 1 X a xn . 

^- p- = — wm — '"^ '^^'''^ 

P = Mean effective steam pressure. 
1 = length of stroke in feet, 
a = area of piston in square inches. 
n = number of strokes per minute. 
H. P. = Horse power. 
33,000 = Number of foot-pounds. 

A foot-pound is one pound raised through one 
foot of space. 

Length of stroke = twice the length of crank. 
No. of strokes per min. = twice the number of 
revolutions. 



CRBAMBRY MECHANICS 295 

7rd« 
Area of piston =~T~* 

Example : 

P = 40 lbs. 

1=2 ft. 

a = 20 sq. inches. 

n = 400. 

40 X 2 X 20 X 400 = 640,000 
640,000 ^ 33,000 = 19.4 = H. P. 

CAI,CUI.ATING size: AND SPEED OE PULI.EYS. 

In creameries where new shafting and new machinery 
are being put up, it is important to know how to determine 
the required speed of the shafting as well as the speed 
and size of the pulleys. This calculation is not difficult 
when we remember the following rule: 

The speed varies inversely with the diameter of the 
pulley. Thus, with the same speed of the engine, the 
speed of the main shaft becomes less as the diameter of 
the pulley on that shaft is increased. 

It must be remembered, also, that in a creamery where 
the churn and separators are run directly from the main 
shaft, the speed of this shaft must be fixed at from 175 to 
200 revolutions per minute in order to permit the use of 
suitable sized pulleys. 

We usually speak of two kinds of pulleys: the drive 
pulley and the driven pulley. Where the engine drives the 
main shaft the pulley on the engine is called the drive 
pulley and that on the main shaft the driven pulley. When 
we refer to the main shaft driving the intermediate, then 
the pulley on the main shaft becomes the driver and that 
on the intermediate the driven pulley. 

In creameries there are two problems that present them- 
selves with respect to pulleys : one is to find the speed of 



296 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

the pulley when the diameter is given ; the other is to find 
the diameter when the speed is given. 

I. To find the speed of a driven pulley : Multiply the 
diameter of the driver by its speed and divide the product 
by the diameter of the driven pulley. 




Fig. 85.— Belting from engine to separator. 

Example : Diameter of engine pulley, 20 inches ; speed 
of engine, 200 revolutions per minute ; diameter of driven 
pulley, 25 inches. 

20 X 200-^25= 160= No. rev. per min. of driven pulley. 

2. To find diameter of driven pulley: Multiply the 
diameter of driver by its speed and divide the product 
by the required speed of driven pulley. 

Example : Diameter of engine pulley, 20 inches ; speed 
of engine, 200 revolutions per minute ; speed of driven 
pulley, 200 revolutions per minute. 

20 X 200 H- 200 = 20 = diameter of driven pulley. 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 297 

Let us calculate the size and speed of pulleys neces- 
sary to run a separator 6,000 revolutions per minute 
when the following conditions are known : Size of drive 
pulley on engine, 16 inches; size of separator pulley, 3 
inches; size of large pulley on intermediate, 18 inches; 
size of small pulley on intermediate, 5 inches; speed of 
shaft, 180 revolutions per minute. 

The known conditions given here are indicated in the 
diagram above by figures, the unknown by x (Fig. 85). 

The calculation in this problem begins at the separator, 
where both the speed and diameter of the pulley are 
known, and ends with the determination of the speed of 
the engine. 

1. Determine the speed of the intermediate which has 
a large pulley at one end and a small one at the other. 
Applying the foregoing rules, the speed of intermediate 
is equal to: 

6000x3-4-18=1000 rev. permin. 

2. Determine diameter of pulley on main shaft. This 
is equal to: 

1000x5 --180=27.7 inches. 

3. Determine speed of drive pulley on engine. This 
is equal to: 

180x27.7-5-16=312 rev. per min. 

With most engines a great range of speed is possible 
by regulating the governor. It is better, however, to have 
the drive pulley of such size as to keep the speed under 
300 revolutions per minute. 



298 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Friction : its advantage and disadvantage. 

The resistance produced by one body sliding over 
another is called friction. No matter how smooth a sur- 
face may appear it always contains irregularities (molec- 
ular) which are not unlike the teeth of a saw, though so 
small as to render them invisible to the naked eye. When- 
ever, then, two surfaces are put together they inter- 
lock and when made to slide over each other produce 
friction. 

Friction as Applied to Belts. Practical application 
of friction is made in transmitting power by means of 
belts. Without friction such transmission would be im- 
possible. The highest efficiency of belts is obtained where 
there is no slipping or stretching, conditions made possi- 
ble by observing the following points : 

1. Use only good leather belting. 

2. Avoid too slack or too tight belts. 

3. Run belts with the hair side next to the pulley. 

4. Cover face of pulley with belting and have the 
hair side out. 

5. Keep belts dry and flexible. 

Size of Belting. A two-ply belt may be subjected to 
an effective tension of 40 pounds per inch of width with- 
out straining it. In determining, therefore, the width of 
a belt for a given horse power the effective tension of the 
belt must be considered. Further, since a fast running 
belt is capable of transmitting a greater horse power per 
given width than a slow running belt, the speed of the 
belt must also be considered. Hence the following 
formula : 



CRBAMBRY MECHANICS 299 

xi.7'A 1 f K u No. H. p. X 33,000 

Width of belt= ^^ w m h-^i^ 

TT D X No. rev. X 40 

In which 

H. P. = Horse power. 

33,000 = Number of foot-pounds in one H. P. 
No. rev. = Number of revolutions of drive pulley 
per minute. 
40 = Effective tension. 
TT = 3.1416. 
D. = Diameter of drive pulley in feet. 

Example : What width of two-ply belting is required 
with a drive pulley fourteen inches in diameter, making 
three hundred revolutions per minute and developing ten 
horse power? 

Applying our formula we have: 

,,,.,. 10 X 33,000 nK- \. 

"^'^'^ = 3.1416X14X300X40 = ^"^ ^"^^"^- 

Lacing Belts. In lacing belts care must be taken 
never to cross the lacing on the side of belt next to the 
pulley, nor to have more than a double thickness of 
lacing. The ends of the belt should be cut off squarely 
so as to have them come together at all points. Holes 
are punched in a line one inch from the cut edges 
with the outer ones within half an inch of the edge of the 
belt. They should be just large enough to permit double 
lacing. The lacing is best begun at the middle of the 
belt, care being taken to have the smooth side of the lace 
on the side of the belt that runs on the pulley. The ends 
are fastened either by running them through small holes 
punched in line with the lace holes, or by cutting a small 
slit in the middle of one end, then cutting into the edge 
and toward the end of the other, which is run through 
the slit just beyond the cut edge. 



300 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Rubber belts are not as desirable for creamery use as 
leather belts. 

Adjustment of Shafts. To avoid straining a belt the 
shafts must be parallel. This means that where the inter- 
mediate and engine are hitched to the same shaft the 
latter must be placed in position first. The engine and 
intermediate are then lined up so as to have their shafts 
run parallel with the main shaft. When the shafts are 
parallel the pulleys are easily adjusted so as to have the 
belts run on the middle of the pulley. 

Lubricants or Oils. These slippery substances act in 
a two-fold way in minimizing the friction between sliding 
surfaces : ( i ) by filling up the inequalities of the sliding 
surfaces, thus preventing interlocking; (2) by allowing 
oil to slide on oil instead of one solid surface upon 
another. 

The best oils are those that are entirely free from any 
tendency to gumminess and it is economy to use only 
such. Indeed in fast running machinery no other oils are 
permissible. 

Consistency of Oils. This is determined by the use 
to which the oil is put. In fast running machinery where 
there is little pressure on the bearings, as, for example 
in a cream separator, very thin oil is most serviceable. 
The reasons for this are (i) that only a very thin layer 
of oil is required in the bearings of such machinery, and 
(2) that there is some friction produced in one layer of 
oil sliding upon another, and the thinner the oil the less 
will be the friction produced in this way. 

The crank shaft of an engine, which runs at a com- 
paratively low speed and is subjected to more or less 
pressure, requires a rather heavy oil for best service. 

Hot Bearings. These are most frequently caused by 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 



301 



using an insufficient amount, or the wrong kind, of oil. 
Hot bearings are also frequently caused by dirt, slipping 
belts, too tight belts, and too tight bearings. 

TOOLS, PACKING, AND STEAM FITTINGS. 

A creamery contains a great deal of machinery and 




Fig. 86.— Pipe cutter. 



Fig. 87.— Stock and die 




piping. The need of an ample supply of tools, packing, 
and steam fittings is therefore evident. 

Tools. These consist mainly of pipe cutter, two pipe 
tongs, vise, stock and dies, alligator wrench, a pair of gas 
pliers, hammer, punch, and screw driver. Fig. 86 shows 
pipe cutter ; Fig. 87, stock and dies ; Fig. 88, alligator 
wrench ; Fig. 89, vise ; and Fig. 90, pipe wrench. 



302 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



Packing. All steam stuffing boxes should be packed 
with asbestos which has been treated with a mixture of 
oil and graphite. 




Fig. 88. —Adjustable alligator wrench. 



Pipe joints, such as unions, 
should be fitted with rainbow gas- 
kets to which a little graphite or 
chalk is added to prevent their 
sticking to the joints. Pipes that 
must be frequently taken apart 
should have ground joints. These 
will do away with the use of 
gaskets which are troublesome in 
such cases. 

Steam Fittings. Extra fittings 
for one-half to two inch pipes 
should always be on hand. The 
necessary fittings are elbows, nip- 
ples, bushings, tees (Ts), plugs. 



O=CF=0 



r^^ 




Fig. 89 — Vise. 



lock nuts, couplings, reducing couplings, and unions. 




Fig. 90.~Pipe wrench. 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 



303 



D 



When using right and left nipples, that is, nipples with 
a right thread at one end and left thread at the other, 
screw each end separately into the pipe which it is to fit 
and count the number of threads covered. If, for exam- 
ple, four right threads are covered and six left threads, 
then cover two left threads be- 
fore joining with the other 
end. In this way the two ends 
turn tight at the same time, 

O which is necessary to prevent 

leaking. 

VALVES. 

The subject of valves is an 
important one and deserves 
much attention. Usually the 
ordinary creamery contains 
from twenty-five to fifty 
valves. It is, therefore, not sur- 
prising to find steam and 
water leaks in a creamery building. To replace a valve 
as soon as it begins leaking is too expensive. The proper 
thing to do is to repair it. In the following paragraphs 
a brief discussion will be given of the kinds of valves 
and the methods of repairing them. 

Globe Valve. This valve, shown in Fig. gi, takes 
its name from its globular form. It is preferably so 
placed as to allow the pressure of the steam to come 
under the valve. 

Check Valve. This is placed between the boiler and 
the feed pipe to prevent the return of water and steam. 




Fig. 91.— Globe valve. 



304 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Gate Valve. As its name implies, this is a valve 
closed by a gate. 

Throttle Valve. This is the valve that admits the 
steam to the engine. 

Stop or Gas Valve. This is opened by giving it a 
half turn. It is commonly used on receiving vats, and 
on milk and skim-milk pipes. 

Rotary Valve. This is illustrated by the stop cocks 
used on the boiler. 

Ball Valve. This is an automatic valve ^'Hustrated by 
the float that regulates the feed of the separator. 

Parts of a Globe Valve. These are: (i) chamber; 
(2) seat; (3) stem; (4) stuffing box; (5) disc; and (6) 
handle. The chamber is the place where the valve oper- 
ates. The disc is attached to the stem and closes the 
valve by turning it onto the seat. 

Repairing of Globe Valves. There are three parts in a 
valve that may cause it to leak: (i) the seat, (2) the disc, 
and (3) the stem. In valves like the Huxley where the seat 
and disc are replaceable, extras should always be kept 
on hand so that either may be replaced when leaking. 
In valves like the Jenkins where only the disc is replace- 
able a "reseater" should be at hand whereby the seat of 
the valve can be made to fit tight again. A reseater for 
valves from one-half to one and one-half inches in 
diameter can be bought for twenty-five dollars, and 
creameries that use valves in which the seat is not re- 
movable should be provided with one. 

The valve discs are made of various materials, but, for 
ordinary steam pressure, brass and ''composition" discs 
are giving the best satisfaction. 



CREAMERY MECHANICS 



305 



The stuffing box of the valve is packed with asbestos 
to which a mixture of oil and graphite is first added. This 
packing will prevent the stem from leaking. The burr 
of the stuffing box must be tightened from time to time 
when it shows signs of leaking. 

In case of water valves the stuffing boxes are best 
packed with oiled candle wicking. 

LINING UP SHAFTING. 



(? 



A 



B 




Fig. 92.— Intersecting planes. 



Fig. 93.— An aid to lining 
up shafts. 



Fasten a heavily chalked string along the ceiling paral- 
lel to the direction the shafting is to take. Snap the 
string, and a white mark will indicate the position of the 

20 



306 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

shafting in a plane parallel to the floor. This plane is in- 
dicated by the line ab in Fig. 92. Next determine the posi- 
tion of the shafting in a plane at right angles to the floor, 
indicated by the line cd. This is done as follows : Loosely 
fasten the hangers along the white chalk line and properly 
fasten the shafting. Now hang on the shafting, at inter- 
vals of three feet, pieces of board like that shown in Fig. 
93. The upper end is rounded to fit over the shaft, while 
the lower end is perforated as indicated by the dot. These 
pieces of board must be carefully cut so that the distance 
P is the same in all. If the holes at the lower ends are all 
in line the shafting is properly lined up. If not, the shaft 
needs readjusting. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 



GRADING CREAM AND MILK. 



As long as bad cream and milk continue to be accepted 
by creameries, just so long will grading remain a desirable 
practice. Statistics show that in spite of the rapid ex- 
tension of inspection and educational work, there has been 
a distinct deterioration in the quality of butter in recent 
years, caused undoubtedly by increasing supplies of in- 
ferior cream. The general acceptance of such cream 
must be attributed to the present strenuous competition 
in the creamery sections. 

It has been argued that because of this very competition 
the grading of cream would be impracticable. This may 
be true, to some extent at least, where grading is done 
solely with a view to paying farmers according to the 
quality of cream delivered, and while such a basis of 
payment is entirely just (and because of this should be 
employed), it is too well known that creameries have lost 
patronage by its adoption. 

Grading to Improve Butter^ There is, however, 
another important side to the grading of cream which of 
itself should justify its adoption, and that is the improve- 
ment of the quality of butter. The mixing of all grades 
of cream — sour, sweet, stale, putrid, fresh, rancid — can 
manifestly not produce a high quality of butter. The old- 
est, strongest and sourest cream should be separated from 
the best. Immediately after pasteurizing the old, sour 
cream, it should be treated with a heavy starter and churned 

307 



308 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

as soon as the proper churning temperature is reached. The 
remaining cream is preferably also pasteurized and then 
treated with starter and ripened in the usual way. The 
same practice may also be followed with reference to 
milk. 

Grading is advantageously practiced in a great many 
of the larger creameries, but owing to the extra labor 
and expense involved, it can not be adopted with the 
same advantage by the smaller creameries. 

With small creameries that can not make separate 
churnings. grading may still be followed to advantage. 
Where it is desired to churn all the cream in the same 
churning, a better quality of butter is possible when the 
sweet cream is ripened by itself with a heavy starter and 
the sour, stale cream added to this a few hours previous 
to churning. Adding sour, stale cream to sweet cream 
is equivalent to adding so much starter of a kind not likely 
to produce very good results. Moreover when a fine 
flavored starter is added to such a mixture its influence 
is small compared with what it is when added to sweet 
cream, because acid is a hindrance to the development 
t>f the lactic acid bacteria. 

Where old, sour cream is held some hours it should be 
kept at a low temperature. 

Grading to do Justice and Improve Raw Material. 
The butter maker has far better control over sweet cream 
than he has over sour cream and can therefore make a bet- 
ter quality of butter from it. It is then no more than just 
that the patron who takes good care of his cream and 
endeavors to deliver it often, should receive more for it 
than the man who is careless and delivers the cream only 
once a week. Wherever possible patrons should be paid 
according to the quality of cream delivered. 



GRADING CREAM AND MILK 309 

Grading should also stimulate careless patrons to im- 
prove the quality of their milk and cream. Indeed this 
would certainly follow in many cases, unless the patron 
is so situated that he might patronize a competing 
creamery which is willing to accept his cream on a par 
with the best cream. 

Number of Grades. In general creamery practice two 
grades will perhaps be found to give better satisfaction 
than more grades. A number of the larger creameries, 
however, make use of three grades. 

Basis of Grading Cream. Cream is ordinarily graded 
on taste, smell and acidity. In some cases the grading 
is done wholly on the basis of acidity, in others it is done 
wholly by taste and smell. In a few cases frequency of 
delivery and richness are considered. All of the above 
factors have a bearing upon the quality of cream. 

Where an expert examines the cream, the sense of 
taste and smell yields the best judgment as to the quality 
of butter that can b^ made from such cream. Whatever 
basis of grading is employed, the sense of smell must 
always form a part of it. 

The grading upon a basis of acidity alone may result 
in unfairness, because a fine flavored, sour cream is not 
as objectionable as a sweet, stale smelling cream. How- 
ever where this test is employed in conjunction with the 
sense of smell the results are usually very satisfactory. 

In regard to the frequency of delivery, it is evident that 
any cream four days old, regardless of how it has been 
produced and handled, will not make a first class quality 
of butter. Where cream of this age or older is received, 
therefore, it can justly be barred from grade No. i, with- 
out any examination whatever. For this reason the age 
of the cream should prove valuable as aid in grading. 



310 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

Since sour cream containing less than 30% fat can not 
be satisfactorily pasteurized and since rich cream has the 
further advantages mentioned on page 237, the richness 
of cream may well be considered in grading. 

The basis for grading cream must necessarily vary 
under different conditions. 

A Rapid Acid Test for Cream. Such a test is de- 
scribed on page 81, and can be used for milk as well 
as for cream. If a higher standard of acidity is to be 
fixed than the one employed on page 81, the only change 
necessary is to make the solution stronger. 

For tests employed in general grading of milk and 
cream, see Chapter XXII. 



APPENDIX. 

Composition of Butter. According to analyses re- 
ported by various experiment stations, American butter 
has the following average composition : 

Per cent. 

Water 13 

Fat 83 

Proteids i 

Salt 3 

Composition of Cream. Cream contains all the con- 
stituents found in milk, though not in the same proportion. 
The fat may vary from 8% to 68%. As the cream grows 
richer in fat it becomes poorer in solids not fat. This is 
illustrated in the following figures by Richmond: 



Total solids. 


Solids 
not fat. 


Fat. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


32.50 




6.83 


25.67 


37.59 




6.14 


31.45 


50.92 




5.02 


45.90 


55.05 




4.65 


50.40 


57.99 




4.17 


53.82 


68.18 




3.30 


64.88 



The same authority also reports the following detailed 
analysis of a thick cream : 

311 



312 



CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



Per cent. 

Water 39.37 

Fat 56.09 

Sugar 2 . 29 

Proteids i . 57 

Ash 38 

Composition of Buttermilk. According to Vieth, 
btitterniilk from ripened cream has the following compo- 
sition : 

Per cent. 
Water 90 . 39 



Fat 

Milk sugar 4 

Lactic acid \ . . . 

Proteids 3 

Ash 



Creamery buttermilk should not average above .2% fat. 
Composition of Skim=milk. Richmond has found 
the following average composition of separator skim- 
milk : 

Per cent. 
Water 90.50 



Fat 

Milk sugar 4 

Casein 3 

Albumen 

Ash 



COMPARISON OF CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT THER- 
MOMETER SCALES. 



Thermometer. 


F. 


C. 


Boiling point (water) 


212 
32 


100 











Difference between boiling and freezing point 


180 


100 



APPENDIX 



313 



From the above it will be seen that one degree Centi- 
grade is equivalent to 9-5 degrees Fahrenheit. Hence 
the following rules : 

1. To change C. into F. reading, multiply by 9-5 and 
add 32. 

Example: 50°C = (50 X |) + 32 = 112°F. 

2. To change F. into C. reading, subtract 32 and 
multiply by 5-9. 

Example: 182°F = (182 - 32) X f =83J°C. 

METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

This system was devised by the French people and has 
very extensive application wherever accuracy in weights 
and measures is desired. Some of its equivalents in 
ordinary weights and measures are given in the follow- 
ing table: 



Ordinary weights and measures. 


Equivalents in metric system. 


1 ounce (av.) . . 


28.35 grams. 
0.9464 liter. 


1 quart 




3 7854 liters 


fluid ounce 


29.57 cubic centimetcs (c.c.) 
0.4536 kUogram. 
64.8 milligrams. 

2 54 f»f»nt.iTn*»f.f»r« 


1 pound (av.) 




1 inch 


1 foot 


fl 3048 Tnf»tAr 







314 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 



CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS FOR A CO-OPERATIVE CREAM- 
ERY ASSOCIATION.* 

Articles of Agreement of the Association. 

We the undersigned residents of the county of , 

State of , do hereby associate ourselves together 

as a co-operative association under the laws of the State 
of and have adopted the following constitution : 

Article I. 



This association shall be known as the 

Association. 

Article II. 

The object of this association shall be the manufacture 
of butter from milk and cream bought on the fat basis. 

Article III. 

The regular meetings of this association shall be held 

annually on the day of the month of 

Special meetings may be called by the president, or on 
written request of one-third of the members of the asso- 
ciation, provided three days' notice of such meeting is 
sent to all members. 

Article IV. 

The officers of this association shall be a president, 
secretary, treasurer, and three trustees, who shall be 
elected annually at the regular annual meeting. The 

* la drawing up this constitution and by-laws, free use has been made of 
Vye's Creamery Accounting and Farrington & WoU's Testing Milk and Its 
Products. 



APPENDIX 315 

president or secretary shall also act as general manager 
of the creamery. 

Article V. 

The duties of the president shall be to preside at all 
meetings of the association, sign all drafts and docu- 
ments, and pay all money which comes into his posses- 
sion by virtue of his office to the treasurer, taking his 
receipt therefor. 

The secretary shall keep a record of all the meetings of 
the association and make and sign all orders upon the 
treasurer. He shall conduct the correspondence and gen- 
eral business of the association and keep a correct finan- 
cial account between the association and its members. 

The treasurer shall receive and receipt for all moneys 
belonging to the association, and pay out the same only 
upon orders which shall be signed by the president and 
the secretary. He shall give bonds in such amount as 
the association shall prescribe. 

The president, secretary, and three trustees shall con- 
stitute a board of directors, whose duties shall be to audit 
the accounts of the association, invest its funds, and 
determine all compensations. They shall prescribe and 
enforce the rules and regulations of the creamery. They 
shall cause to be kept a record of the weights and tests 
of the milk and cream received from each patron, of the 
products sold, and of the running expenses, and shall 
divide among the patrons the money due them each 
month. 

The board of directors shall cause the secretary to 
make, in writing, a report at the annual meeting of the 
association, setting forth in detail the gross milk receipts, 
the net receipts of products sold, and all other receipts, 



316 CREAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

the amount paid for milk and running expenses, and give 
a complete statement of all other matters pertaining to 
the business of the association. They shall also make 
some provision for the withdrawal of any member from 
the association, and make a report in detail to the asso- 
ciation at the annual meeting. 

The board of directors shall borrow a sum of money 

not exceeding thousand dollars to be used by 

them solely for the purpose of building and equipping 
a creamery. 

Article VI. 

Ten members of the association, or three of the board 
of directors, shall constitute a quorum to transact busi- 
ness. 

Article VII. 

Each member shall be entitled to one vote only at any 
meeting of the association. New members may be ad- 
mitted as provided by the by-laws. Members shall be per- 
mitted to withdraw only as provided by the by-laws. 

Article VIII. 

The constitution may be amended at any annual meet- 
ing, or at any special meeting, provided that two-thirds 
of all the members present -vote in favor of such a change. 

By-Lazvs of the Association. 

1. The milk of each patron shall be tested not less 
than twice a month. 

2. No milk shall be received at the creamery later 
than ten o'clock a. m. 



APPENDIX 317 

3. One cent for each pound of butter fat received at 
the creamery shall be reserved to form a sinking fund. 

4. The treasurer shall give bonds in the sum of 

dollars, the bond to be approved by the 

board of directors. 

5. Patrons shall furnish all of the milk from all the 
cows promised at the organization of the creamery. 

6. Nothing but sweet and pure milk shall be accepted 
at the creamery. 

7. All milk received at the creamery shall be paid for 
on the basis of the amount of fat it contains. 

8. Dividends shall be made on the twentieth day of 
each month. 

Storch's Test for Milk and Its Products. This test 
makes it possible to determine whether milk, cream, skim- 
milk or buttermilk has been heated to 176° F. or above. 
It is made as follows: Put one teaspoonful of milk into 
a test tube, add one drop of 2% solution of peroxid of 
hydrogen and two drops of 2% solution of paraphenylene- 
dianiin; shake the mixture; if a dark violet color promptly 
appears, the milk has not been heated to 176° F. 



GLOSSARY. 

Albume:noids. — Substances rich in albumen, like the 
white of an egg which is nearly pure albumen. 

Anaerobic. — Living without free oxygen. 

Calibrating. — Determining the caliber of the neck of a 
test bottle in order to ascertain the accuracy of the 
scale upon it. 

Carbohydrates. — Substances like starch and sugar. 

Centrifugal Force. — That force by which a body mov- 
ing in a curve tends to fly off from the axis of motion. 

Chemical Composition. — This refers to the elements or 
substances of which a body is composed. 

Colloidal. — Resembling glue or jelly. 

Concussion. — The act of shaking or agitating. 

Constituents. — The components or elements of a sub- 
stance. 

Dead Center. — That position of the engine when the 
crank arm and the piston rod are in a straight line. 

Dividers. — An instrument used in reading tests. 

Emulsion. — A mixture of oil (fat) and water contain- 
ing sugar or some mucilaginous substance. 

Enzymes. — Unorganized ferments, or ferments that do 
not possess life. 

Fibrin. — A substance which at ordinary temperatures 
forms a fine network through milk which impedes 
the rising of the fat globules. 

Foremilk. — The first few streams of milk drawn from 
each teat. 

Galactase. — An unorganized ferment in milk which di- 
gests casein. 

318 



GLOSSARY 319 

Inoculation. — To seed, to transplant; as to inoculate 
milk with lactic acid germs. 

Insulation. — The state of being protected from heat and 
cold by non-conducting material. 

Lead. — The amount of opening of the steam ports when 
the engine is on the dead center. 

LoppERED Milk. — Milk that has thickened. 

Mammary Gland. — The organ which secretes milk. 

Medium. — The substance in which bacteria live. Thus, 
milk furnishes an excellent medium for the growth of 
bacteria. 

Meniscus. — A body curved like a first quarter moon. 

Milk Serum. — Milk free from fat. Thus, skim-milk is 
nearly pure milk serum. 

Mixing Cans. — Small tin cans used for mixing milk pre- 
paratory to testing. 

Neutral. — Possessing neither acid nor alkaline prop- 
erties. 

Non-conductor. — A material which does not conduct 
heat or cold, or only so with great difficulty. 

Osmosis. — The tendency in fluids to diffuse or pass 
through membranes. 

Parturition. — The act of being delivered of young-. 

Pasteurization. — The process of destroying all or most 
of the vegetative bacteria by the application of heat 
from 140° to 185° F. 

Period oe Lactation. — The time from calving to ''dry- 
ing up." 

Physical Properties. — The external characteristics of a 
body, like color, odor, hardness, solubility, density, 
form, etc. 

Propagate. — To continue to multiply. Thus, to propa- 
gate a starter means to continue multiplying the lactic 



320 CRBAMERY BUTTER MAKING 

acid bacteria by daily transferring them to a new 

medium such as sweet pasteurized skim-milk. 
pROTEiDS. — Nitrogenous substances like casein and albu- 
men. 
Reducing Vai.ve. — A valve used for regulating steam 

pressure. 
Refrigerant. — In mechanical refrigeration a substance 

whose evaporation produces cold. 
Rennet. — The curdling and digesting principle of calf 

stomach. 
Scoring. — A term used synonymously with judging. 
Secretion. — The act of separating or producing from the 

blood by the vital economy. 
Septic. — Promoting decay. 
Specific Gravity. — The weight of one body as compared 

with an equal volume of some other body taken as 

a standard. 
Specific Heat. — The quantity of heat required to raise 

the temperature of a body one degree. 
Solution. — The state of being dissolved. 
Spore. — The resting or non-vegetative stage of certain 

kinds of bacteria. 
Steam Trap. — An arrangement by which condensed 

steam may be taken out of heating pipes without the 

escape of steam. 
Sterilization. — The process of destroying all germ life 

by the application of heat near 212° F. 
Strippers' Milk. — The milk from cows far advanced in 

the period of lactation. 
Strippings. — The last few streams of milk drawn from 

each teat. 
Suspension. — The state of being held mechanically in a 

liquid, like butter fat in milk. 



GLOSSARY 321 

Trypsin.— The active agent in the secretion of the 

pancreas. 
Vegetative Bacteria.— Those bacteria that are in an 

actively growing condition. 
Viscosity.— The qiiaHty of being sticky ; stickiness. 
Volatile. — The state of wasting away on exposure to the 

atmosphere. Easily passing into vapor like ammonia. 
Whole Milk.— Milk which has neither been watered nor 

skimmed. 



21 



INDEX. 



Pape 

Acid, butyric 15, 4(> 

Acidity of cream, 

effect of richness on 82 

Acid measures 27 

Acid, oleic 14 

palmitic 14 

sulpliuric 28 

Acid tests for cream 77 

Albumen I'l 

Albumenoids 16 

Appendix 311 

Asli of mills 17 

Babcock test 23 

directions for making 28 

how to read 29, 169 

principle of 23 

sample for 23 

Babcock Tester 24 

calculating speed for 32 

Bacteria (see fermentations) . 42 

butyric acid 46 

lactic acid 44 

Barn air 247 

Barn, sanitary 242 

yard, clean 243 

Bath room 179 

Bearings, hot 300 

Belting, size of 298 

lacing of 299 

Bichromate of potash 52 

Bitter fermentation 47 

Boiler, care of 281 

firing of 279 

scale 282 

smoke stack for 285 

Book-keeping 215 

Bottles, Babcock, 

how to calibrate 31 

how to clean 31 

Brine salting 105 



Page 

Butter, calculating water in.. 158 

color of 102, 143 

composition of 311 

control of water in 154 

fat 13 

composition of 14 

globules 13 

insoluble 14 

melting point of 14 

percentage of, in milk.. 20 
physical properties of.. 13 

soluble 14 

specific gravity of 14 

flavor of 66, 141 

foreign packages for 113 

granules, size of 103 

judging 187 

marketing of 116 

milk, composition of 312 

for a starter 76, 86 

handling of 136 

packages for Ill 

preparing Ill 

packing Ill 

printer 113 

printing cold 115 

salting 103 

sampling of 156 

score cards 138 

texture of 142 

tubs, paraffining of 114 

preparation of Ill 

washing of 103 

water in 154 

working of 106 

value of 262 

Butyric fermentation 46 

Calculating dividends 119 

Cans, starter 93 

milk and cream 251 



323 



324 



INDEX 



Page 

Cans, weigh 11 

Casein 16 

Chromogenic fermentation — 49 

Churn, gas in 103 

pumping cream into 109 

straining cream Into 102 

Churning 9G 

at once ......". 109 

conditions that influence.. 96 

difficult 108 

foaming in 108 

operations 101 

Churns 99 

cleaning 108 

Color, butter 102 

Colostrum milk 18 

Composite samples, care of 54 

frequency of testing 55 

sampling 51 

test jars 56 

Compressor, size of 210 

expense of operating 210 

power required to operate.. 210 

Cooling of milk and cream 231 

Co-operative creameries 224 

Corrosive sublimate 52 

Cream acid tests 77 

adding color to 102 

bottles, Babcock 25, 167 

churnability of 67 

composition of 311 

coolers 149, 233 

cooling of 65, 231 

danger of adding ice to 76 

effect of richness on weight 

of 167 

flavor of 66 

frequency of delivering 254 

frothing of 68 

grading of 307 

hauling of 252 

pasteurization 148 

pasteurization of gathered 151 

pumps 109, 110 

rapid method of determin- 
ing acidity of 81 

richness of, how regulated. 63 
ripeners 74 



Page 

Cream ripening 66 

control of 71 

methods of 68 

objects of 66 

sample 169 

samplers 53, 162 

sampling at creamery 165 

at farm 164 

gathered 161 

scales 28, 167, 168 

selling of 263 

separator, choice of 59 

efficiency of 59 

history of 58 

shipping of 253 

skim station 253 

standardizing 264 

straining 102 

taints, detection of 200 

testing 166 

frequency of 166 

transportation 251 

cans 252 

value of 262 

weighing at creamery 165 

at farm 165 

Creamery bath room 179 

boiler 272 

accessories 274 

book-keeping 215 

construction 72 

Creajnery, co-operative 224 

constitution for ....314 

management of 226 

method of organizing 224 

floor, cK)nstruction of 176 

plan 174 

heating of 180 

intake 176 

location 171 

mechanics 272 

sewage 188 

sewerage 178 

ventilation .178 

Creaming 57 

efficiency of 59 

Curdling fermentation 45 



INDEX 



325 



Page 

Dairy house 230 

construction 230 

equipment of 231 

Digesting fermentation 45 

Dividends, calculating 119 

Engine, care and management 

of 293 

horse power of 294 

parts of 287 

Erricson starter 88 

Farrington acid test 79 

Fat globules 13 

insoluble 15 

soluble 16 

Fermentations, milk 43 

abnormal 47 

bitter 47 

butyric 46 

chromogenic 49 

classification of 43 

curdling and digesting 45 

gassy 49 

lactic 44 

normal 44 

slimy or ropy 48 

toxic 49 

Feed, wholesome 246 

Firing of boiler 279 

Fore-milk 248 

Formalin 52 

Friction, discussion of 298 

Gassy fermentation 9 

Gerber fermentation test 204 

Globules, fat 13 

Globulin 16 

Glossary 318 

Governor, engine 290 

Grading cream and milk 307 

Hansen starter 88 

Ice box, a cheap 239 

Ice, cost of making 182 

cooling power of 182 

cream 266 



Page 

Ice cream, lemon 268 

selling 262 

value of 263 

vauilla 266 

house, construction of 183 

for creamery 183 

for farm 239 

location of 175 

source of 182 

Injector 275 

Insoluble fat 15 

Intake 176 

Judging butter 137 

Lactic fermentation 44 

Lactometer, use of 34 

Lubricator 292 

Mann's acid test 78 

Marketing butter 116 

cream 263 

ice cream 270 

McKay sampler 162 

Mechanical refrigeration 205 

Metric system 313 

Michels sampler 162 

Milk adulteration 39 

bottle, Babcock 25 

colostrum 18 

composition of 12 

coolers 232, 233 

cooling 231 

fermentations 43 

grading of 307 

heaters, direct 62 

indirect 63 

pail, sanitary 245 

physical properties of 11 

preservatives 52 

samplers .53, 162 

sanitary production of 241 

secretion 18 

solids 36 

calculation of 38 

specific gravity of 12 

sugar 17 

taints, detection of 200 



326 



INDEX 



Page 

Milk, testins- acidity of 81 

thief 53 

variation in quality of — ll» 

Milkers 244 

Moisture tests (see water tests 

for butter) 159 

Monthly statements 122, 124 

Mottles in butter 143 

Nuclein 16 

Oils 300 

Oleic acid 14 

Overrun 121 

from milk and cream 122 

ice cream 270 

theoretical — 128 

Packages, butter Ill 

ice cream.... 268 

Packing butter Ill 

ice cream 268 

Palmitic acid 14 

Paraffining tubs 114 

Pasteurization, advantages of.. 149 

of cream 145, 148, 266 

cost of 152 

of skimmilk 132 

Paying for milk and cream — 126 

Piston of engine 288 

Power on farm 234 

Preservatives 52 

Printing butter 112, 115 

Pulleys ....295 

calculating size of ,...295 

speed of 295 

Pumps for boiler 277 

for cream 109, 110 

Refrigerating plant 

charging of 211 

operating of 211 

pipes 210 

Refrigeration, 

mechanicul 205 

principle in 205 

strength of brine in.... 209 
systems of 208 



Page 

Refrigeration, natural 182 

Refrigerator 185, 187 

cooled with ammonia 206 

with ice at end 186 

with ice overhead 184 

location of 175 

size of 184 

Rule for calculating butter- 
milk 129 

cream from milk 262 

ice cream yield 263 

size of pulleys 295 

skimmilk 128 

solids not fat 36 

total solids 36 

for churning temperature. . 97 

Salt an absorbent 106 

rate of 104 

Salting, object of 155 

Sample, aliquot 161 

Sanitary milk production 241 

Scovell sampler 53 

Separator, method of fastening 236 

Septic tank. 188 

construction of 189 

cost of 192 

flow through 191 

object of 189 

size of 191 

Sewage disposal 188 

from creamery 188 

from dwelling 192 

Shafting, lining up 305 

Shafts, adjustment of 300 

Shipping cream 253 

ice cream 271 

Skimmilk, composition of 312 

handling of 130 

pasteurization of 132 

Slimy fermentation 48 

Standardizing cream 264 

Starters, acidity of 91 

buttermilk 76, 86 

classification of 85 

cans 93 

carrying several 92 

commercial 87 



INDEX 



327 



Page 

Starters, definition of 84 

how to select milk for 90 

natural 85 

natural vs. commercial 89 

object of 84 

pointers on 94 

renewal of 92 

use of every other day — 90 

whole milk 91 

Steam 278 

wet and dry 284 

Sterilizer, author's 196 

Sterilizing milk vessels 196 

Storch test 317 

Strainers 247 

Straining 247 

Sulphuric acid 28 

Testing cream 166 

Tests, averaging of 124 

reading cream 169 

reading milk 29 

Thermometer scales 312 



Page 

Titration 77 

Toxic fermentation 49 

Valves 303 

repairing of 304 

slide 289 

Ventilation of creamery 178 

Vessels, clean 244 

Washing butter. 103 

milk vessels 194 

Wash sinks 194 

Water, content of butter 154 

factors that influence. .154 
methods of determining 156 

determining purity of 261 

filtering of 259 

importance of pure 256 

pasteurization of 259 

tank, hot 199 

tests for butter 159 

Well, construction of 256 

Wisconsin curd test 201 



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